Swami Vivekananda

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Swami Vivekananda was a Sanyasi, Hindu monk, who spread the Hindu philosophical doctrines overseas in the USA and Europe. He advocated working for the welfare of poor and neglected people of society. Using teachings of the Upanishads, he proclaimed to the general masses of India to arise, awake and learn to achieve one’s material and spiritual objectives.  

He was born in Kolkata on 12 January 1863, a day of Hindu festival of Makar Sankranti.  He was named Narendranath Datta at birth. Affectionately he was called Naren. Two more sons and four daughters, two of whom died at an early age, were born to his parents.

His family was renowned for philanthropy, affluence and an independent spirit. His grandfather Durgacharan Datta became a Sanyasi after the birth of his first son. Naren’s father, Vishwanath Datta, was an attorney at the Calcutta High Court. Naren’s mother, Bhuvaneshwari Devi, was a pious Hindu woman who used to tell him stories from the sacred books of Hinduism.

Naren was attracted to spiritualism from an early age and was fascinated by the stories of deities such as Shiva, Ram, Sita, Hanuman and others. He was especially drawn to wandering ascetics and donated to them whenever an opportunity appeared.

Naren was very energetic in his childhood. His mother used to call him a Shiva Gana, “soldier of Shiva”.

At the age of eight, in 1871, Naren was admitted to school. He displayed an extraordinary intelligence at school and could memorise texts easily. He also demonstrated leadership qualities during his childhood by acting kings or commanders while playing games with other children.

His family moved to Raipur in 1877 due to his father’s work. After returning to Kolkata in 1879, he was the only student to receive first division in the Presidency College entrance examination. He studied for a year in the Presidency College and then joined the Scottish Church College. It was there that he first heard of Shree Ramakrishna from the principal of the college, Mr Hastie. He completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1884. He studied works of famous Western philosophers as well as learnt Indian scriptures and history.

In 1880, Naren joined Brahmo Samaj, a society founded by social reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He familiarised himself with the philosophy and practices of Brahmo Samaj, but his quest for spiritual awakening was not satisfied. He was looking for a person who had seen and realised God. He asked Devendranath Tagore, the spiritual leader of Brahmo Samaj, whether he had seen God in person. Devendranath answered that he had not.

About this time Naren’s father suggested him to marry as many proposals were on offer but he refused. He was interested in becoming a wandering monk and householder’s life would have been a barrier to his pursuit.

Naren first met Ramakrishna in 1881. Ramakrishna was a priest at Dakshineshwar Kali Temple. He believed that the statue of Kali is the embodiment of the devine mother Kali. He often experienced ecstasy and had become a famous mystic Guru. Many devotees had become his disciples.

Initially, Naren did not accept Ramakrishna as his spiritual teacher and was sceptical about his philosophy and practices.  Naren believed that Ramakrishna’s ecstasy and spiritual visions were simply hallucinations. However, Ramakrishna was impressed by Naren’s character, intelligence and insight. He was convinced that Naren would advance his philosophy at home and abroad.  It was Ramakrishna who answered to Naren’s query on seeing the God. Ramakrishna told Naren that he had seen the God as he saw him in person now.  On another occasion, Naren was mesmerised by Ramakrishna’s claim of being an incarnation of God, like divine incarnations of Ram and Krishna.

In 1884, Naren’s father suddenly passed away. He left his family in dire financial conditions. The responsibility for looking after the family fell on Naren. He found solace in Ramakrishna and his visits to Dakshineshwar Kali Temple became more frequent. His domestic problems were reduced with the support and guidance of friends and sympathisers.

Gradually, Naren’s interest in realising God grew. He renounced his attachments to family and possessions, and accepted Ramakrishna as his spiritual Guru. In 1885, Ramakrishna developed throat cancer. He was transferred to a garden house in Cassipore, where his disciples took care of him. Some of these disciples had renounced their families and were living as monks of Ramakrishna Order. Ramakrishna asked Naren to take care of his monk disciples after his death. Ramakrishna died on 16 August 1886. Thereafter, the responsibility to maintain the Ramakrishna Order fell on Naren.

With the help of a householder devotee of Ramakrishna, Naren hired a house in Baranagar, which became and remained a monastery of the Ramakrishna Order from 1886 to 1892. Disciples took formal initiation into monkhood and acquired new names. Naren’s monastic names were Vividishananda, Satchidananda and Vivekananda. New names were necessary to erase old identities.  The term Swami is used as a title before a monk’s name. Swamiji is an honorific address for a monk.

Naren had visited Bodh Gaya during his time with Ramakrishna. His love for wandering became very intense and he wanted to see India of ancient glory. As a monk of Ramakrishna Order, Swami Vivekananda travelled to Varanasi, Gajipur, Ayodhya, Vrindavan, Mathura and other sacred places. He also visited North India and sacred places in the Himalayas.  Everywhere, he saw poverty, disease and people living in unhygienic conditions. He blamed priests, moneylenders and landlords for their callous approach to the poor. He was disappointed with the prevailing living conditions of the general population. He noticed false practices being followed in the name of Hindu religion.

Swamiji visited territories ruled by Indian kings, assuming that they would follow rules and edicts for the welfare of the nation. He visited Rajas and Maharajas of Rajputana, West Coast and Southern India. Conditions of general masses were not better there. He held discussions with kings, ministers, priests and social reformers during his travels. He experienced immense hardship and sometimes hungers. He realised the truth in Ramakrishna’s saying that religion was not for hungry stomachs.

He had one encounter with a king, who mocked worshipping idols, the traditional way of Hindu worship. Swamiji saw a portrait of the king’s father. He asked the king’s minister to take down the portrait and spit on it. Everyone witnessing the event was stunned on his fearless call. Then Swamiji explained that the idol was a symbol of the divine, just like the photograph, and should be treated with respect.

In Kanya Kumari, Swamiji was so fascinated by seeing the rock near the shore that he swam to it and meditated there. It is now known as Vivekananda Rock Memorial. In the South, he learnt about the Parliament of Religions, which was being organised in the USA. Many people were impressed by his talent and devotion to India and encouraged him to represent Hinduism in the Parliament of Religions. The king of Khetri, who was blessed with a son thanks to his blessings during a previous meeting, met Swamiji again in the South. He arranged for his trip to America and at the king’s request, Swamiji assumed the name of Swami Vivekananda.  He left for America on 31 May 1883. On the way, he visited many countries including China, Japan, Korea and others Asian countries. He was thrilled to see the effect of Indian civilisation in those countries.

The Parliament of Religions opened on 11 September 1893. Swamiji had to go through many difficulties in gaining entrance to the Parliament of Religions as a delegate representing Hinduism. He opened his speech with an invocation of sacred Mantras dedicated to goddess Saraswati and address to audience as “My sisters and brothers of America”. His address to the audience drew a standing ovation from the delegates of the Parliament. His speech on Hinduism was well received and brought him to the attention of the press, academics and influential people.

Parliament’s President Mr Barrow said, “India, the mother of religions, was represented by Swami Vivekananda, the orange-monk who exercised the most wonderful influence over his audience”. Swamiji attracted widespread attention in the press, which called him the “cyclonic monk from India”. He visited major cities of the USA and delivered lectures on Hindu philosophy. He gathered a large number of devotees and followers and established Vedanta Centres in various cities. He also visited UK, France and other European countries. He met notable contemporay personalities in the USA and Europe.

After over three years, Swamiji returned to India in 1897. A grand reception was held in Chennai in the South. He came to Kolkata where he was recognised for his achievements overseas.  He established the Ramakrishna Mission and Math in Belur, on the western bank of River Ganga.

 He travelled extensively throughout India and worked to help the common people. He stressed the importance of religion but at the same time focussed on performing services for the poor. He used his influence gained overseas towards these activities. He criticised conversion from Hinduism to other religions and stressed on learning new skills rather than changing religion to improve their material condition.

Many of his devotees from the West followed him to India to help him with his mission of social work. Notable among them is Ms Margaret Noble, who came from England and was renamed Nivedita. She devoted her life to the welfare of Indian women. She established schools for girls. Mr and Mrs Sevier established a Ramakrishna Mission monastry at Mayavati in the Himalayas. Mr Goodwin was a companion of Swamiji. He recorded Swamiji’s speeches and teachings, which later became available as books and publications .

At the request of his western devotees, Swamiji left for Europe and America a second time in June 1899. He visited his old friends in Europe and USA, as well the Vedanta Centres established there. He delivered a number of public lectures. He returned to India by December 1900.

He wrotes books and commentries on Yoga and Vedanta Sutra. His teachings were based on Vedantas, also known as Upanishads. He advocated Advaita Vedanta, the philosophy advanced by Adi Shankaracharya. Ramakrishna united his devotion to goddess Kali with the Advaita Philosophy. A well known quote ascribed to Ramakrishna is that “All religions lead to a single supreme God”. Swami Vivekanand strived to implement his theory into practice.

Swamiji worked long hours for the welfare of common people. He delivered religious discourse as well worked to spread the teachings of Ramakrishna Mission, highlighting the importance of serving the poor people. His relentless work ethic had a debilitating effect on his health. He was suffering from asthma and diabetes. Swamiji died on 4 July 1902 at the age of 39 years.

Swami Vivekananda was and is an inspiration for Indians as well as for people of Indian origin overseas. His philanthropical work continues through the Ramakrishna Mission. His birthday is celebrated as Indian Youth Day.

Mahatma Gandhi – Satyagrah in Champaran (Part 3)

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 after a 21-year stay in South Africa. His contribution to reducing hardships of Indian residents through Satyagrah and other social works in South Africa had made him an internationally recognised organiser and theorist.

On his arrival at Mumbai, political leaders, eminent citizens and acquaintances organised a grand welcome party in Gandhi’s honour. He was overwhelmed by the dazzling splendour of his reception in palatial surroundings.

Gujarati community organised another welcome party. Speakers spoke in English but Gandhi spoke in Gujarati, noting it as a protest against the use of English in a Gujarati gathering.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale summoned Gandhi to see him in Pune. He was a senior leader of Indian National Congress and had founded ‘Servants of India Society’, which focussed on expansion of educating the Indian population and other related social issues.

He had visited South Africa in 1912 and familiarised himself with Gandhi’s works. He prompted Gandhi to return to India and devote his energy to the service of his motherland. Gandhi visited Gokhale in Pune and also met the members of the Servants of India Society. He was impressed by their work. Gokhale wished him to work on national issues.

In big cities the public knew Gandhi through his contacts but the great majority of the population in India was unaware of his achievements and activities in South Africa. Gandhi needed to understand India, its people, their conditions and its environs. Gandhi wished to set up an Ashram that could serve as his base, and would accommodate his colleagues who came from the Phoenix settlement in South Africa.

Gokhale instructed Gandhi to spend his first year familiarising India with his ears open and mouth shut. To free him from the financial burden, Gokhale offered to cover the expenses of his Ashram, through accounts of the Servants of India Society. Gandhi accepted the offer.

Members of the Phoenix settlement were temporarily staying at Shantiniketan. Gandhi went to Shantiniketan to see his colleagues. There he met the teachers and students of Shantiniketan, and its founder poet Ravindranath Tagore. Gandhi suggested some self-help tips to students and staff members, to manage their accommodation and kitchen. His goal was to make them less reliant on servants, and on creating a sense of pride in their own physical work. His ideas were accepted and implemented by the school management.

Gandhi wished to stay at Shantiniketan for some time but he received the news of Gokhale’s death in February 2015. He travelled to Pune and attended Gokhale’s Shraddha ceremony.

From Pune, Gandhi went to Rangoon, Burma, breaking his journey at Kolkata. Gandhi used to travel in third class. His experienced the hardship of third class travel that made him aware of difficulties the masses in India endured during their daily travels.

On his return from Burma, Gandhi attended the Kumbh Mela at Hardwar, and also visited Hrishikesh. At the Kumbh Mela, he met sages, Sanyasis and pilgrims, and had discussions with them on social and religious topics.

In May 1915, Gandhi established his Satyagrah Ashram in Kochrab bungalow at Ahmedabad. A code of conducts and rules was agreed upon with other members of the team. In the beginning, about twenty-five men and women lived at the Ashram.

A few months after the Ashram was set up, Gandhi received a letter from a reputable person with request to accommodate a Dalit family at the Ashram. Gandhi admitted the family of three to the Ashram after discussion with other residents. Neighbours as well supporters of the Ashram resented the admission of the Dalit family. Monetary help was stopped. The situation became so dire, that there was no fund to support the Ashram. At this stage, an unknown person delivered to Gandhi Rs13000, which was enough for a whole year.

The Satyagrah Ashram was later shifted to a new location on the banks of River Sabarmati in June 1917.

Gandhi travelled across India and witnessed the abject poverty of masses in villages, towns and cities. He noticed unhygienic environments in residential areas and at religious sites, the mistreatment of deprived populations, and other malpractices.

In February 1916, Gandhi attended the opening ceremony of Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi. Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya had founded the University. Rajas and Maharajas of princely states, renowned businessmen, social and political leaders, teachers, students and the Viceroy of India attended the event.

Gandhi delivered his first public address in India at this ceremony. He spoke in English and noted, “It is a matter of deep humiliation and shame for us, that I am compelled this evening to address my countrymen in a language that is foreign to me.”

He was appalled by the opulence displayed by monarchs and high officials through their attires and jewelleries. Addressing the richly adorned noblemen he said, “There is no salvation for India unless you strip yourselves of this jewellery and hold it in trust for your countrymen.” Many princes walked out.

He also spoke on unhygienic conditions in and around the cities and sacred sites and on other issues that were demeaning Indian society.

Audiences were not used to listening to such introspection.  After the event at Varanasi, Indians began to hear more about the opinion of a courageous person who lived like a poor man in an Ashram as a saint, and defended the poor.

Gandhi started his first Satyagrah in India in Champaran, Bihar in 1917. It started thanks to the persistent effort of Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo farmer from Champaran. Farmers in the region were forced by British indigo planters to grow indigo on 15% of their land. The planters appropriated the whole crop as rent. Farmers were dismayed by the system and their pleas to authorities had not produced any relief.

During the Congress session at Lucknow in December 1916, Shukla met Gandhi and sought his support for indigo farmers. He requested Gandhi to come to Champaran and see the extent of exploitation that the farmers were subjected to. Shukla followed Gandhi to Kanpur, his Ashram in Ahmedabad and Kolkata until he agreed to visit Champaran.

In early 1917, Gandhi was in Kolkata. Shukla met him there and insisted on his trip to Champaran. Gandhi agreed. They departed Kolkata and arrived at Patna by train. Shukla led Gandhi to the house of a lawyer in Patna, Rajendra Prasad, who later became the first president of Independent India. Rajendra Prasad was away. Gandhi contacted Mazharul Haq, an old acquaintance whom he had met in London. With his help, Gandhi arranged his onward journey and arrived at Muzaffarpur on 15th April midnight.

JB Kripalani, a professor at the Arts College Muzaffarpur met him at the railway station. Gandhi had met Kripalani earlier at Shantiniketan.  He wanted to collect information about the situation of indigo farmers from more reliable sources.

The news of Gandhi’s arrival at Muzaffarpur spread quickly and farmers from Champaran and Muzaffarpur started gathering to see him. Lawyers who had been dealing with indigo cases in courts called on to him to brief.

After hearing the farmers’ side of story, Gandhi wished to hear the British planters’ views. He contacted the secretary of British landlords’ association who flatly refused to provide any information.

Gandhi called on the British commissioner of Tirhut Division in which Champaran district lay. The commissioner tried to bully him and instructed him to leave Tirhut. Gandhi did not leave and instead he proceeded to Motihari, the capital of Champaran district. Several lawyers accompanied him. At Motihari railway station, he was greeted by a vast multitude of people.

Next day, when Gandhi was en route to villages on an elephant to investigate the situation, a police superintendent intercepted him and issued a summons to appear in court the next day. Gandhi telegraphed Rajendra Prasad to come with influential friends and wired a full report to the Viceroy. 

The news of Gandhi’s court appearance spread like wildfire in the surrounding regions. The next morning, people flocked around the court. Police were unable to control the crowd without Gandhi’s cooperation. In the court, Gandhi read a statement supporting his actions of civil disobedience and pleaded guilty. The magistrate asked Gandhi to furnish bail for release. Gandhi refused, and the magistrate released him without bail.

Later, the case against Gandhi was withdrawn and civil disobedience triumphed. He was allowed to proceed with his inquiry, which he and his lawyers completed. On his request, an official commission of inquiry into the indigo farmers’ situation was appointed. In the official commission, Gandhi was the sole representative of the farmers.

The official commission found evidences of excess rents charged by the British planters. They were ordered to pay back the excess rent to farmers. The farmers felt empowered and became bold. Within a few years, British planters abandoned their estates, which were reverted to farmers. Indigo farming disappeared.

Gandhi stayed in Champaran for seven months uninterrupted during his first visit, and later visited a number of times. He started schools, primary health care centres and other programs to help the local communities. He tried to teach the local population self-reliance.

The success of his experiment in Champaran greatly enhanced Gandhi’s reputation in India. While he was still busy with many projects in Champaran, he received an urgent request from textile workers of Ahmedabad. They had a dispute with mill-owners for better pay and working conditions. Gandhi learnt the demands of workers and the mill-owners’ position on the issue, and proposed arbitration for resolution of the dispute.  The mill-owners refused arbitration.

Gandhi asked workers to go on strike, provided they took a pledge to remain non-violent. They agreed but soon many were on the verge of starvation. Gandhi sensed that workers might break the pledge. He declared that he would not touch food until a settlement had been reached. His fast had a moral effect on the workers as well as on mill-owners. At the end of the third day of the fasting, both parties agreed to arbitration to resolve the dispute.

After the textile industry’s dispute, Gandhi was approached to interfere in the agrarian dispute in Kheda district of Gujarat. Farmers were on the verge of starvation but the Government was demanding to pay tax as usual. In March 1918, Gandhi advised farmers to resort to Satyagrah. He persuaded all the farmers, rich and poor to take a pledge not to pay any tax until those who could not pay were granted remission. This campaign continued for four months, until the Government suspended tax collection for poor farmers.

During the Kheda campaign, Viceroy Chemsford had convened a war Conference to enlist support of Indian leaders for the First World War.  Gandhi was invited to the conference and he agreed to support the war effort. During his campaign for recruiting soldiers in July 1918, he said, “If we want to become free from reproach of cowardliness, we should learn the use of arms. We should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is the ability to bear arms and to use them.”

Gandhi’s readiness to recruit for the British war had been a matter of debate. His campaign did not find popular support and failed.

During the process of recruiting, Gandhi suffered from dysentery. He fasted and refused medicine and injection. His illness became so serious that he felt sure he would die. A medical practitioner suggested an ice treatment, which helped. He advised him to take eggs, which Gandhi refused.

Doctors advised him to take milk, to which he reminded them of his vow of not taking milk. He had stopped taking milk due to the cruel manner of milking cows and buffaloes. At this moment his wife Kasturba interjected, “You cannot have any objection to goat milk.” Gandhi wished to live and agreed to take goat milk. Gandhi later wrote that it was a breach of his pledge, and this act had always bothered him.

Gandhi’s illness could not keep him away from action for long, as the British government reneged from their promises to India after the First World War.

Borobudur and Prambanan Temples

In March 2023, my wife and I travelled to Jakarta and Yogyakarta. Both cities are located on Java, the most populated island of Indonesia. Indonesia is a country, which consists of over seventeen thousand islands, including Sumatra, Java, Bali, Kalimanthan and others. The country is located in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. The name Indonesia is derived from the Greek words Indos and nesos, which mean Indian Islands.

India has been closely related to Indonesian islands through trade and cultural exchanges since ancient times. Long ago, Indian traders established their settlements on various islands. Subsequently Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms were founded on Indonesian archipelagos. Many cities, towns and objects still retain their Sanskrit names.

Buddhist kingdoms of Srivijaya in Sumatra and Shailendra in Java, and Hindu kingdoms of Sanjay and Majapahit in Java reigned over a large part of territories of modern Indonesia. Those kingdoms flourished over many centuries and contributed to the development of a unique culture and traditions that were aligned with Indian beliefs and institutions. Temples and monasteries, which they built, still dominate the landscape of Indonesian islands, including Bali and Java.

Bali is predominantly a Hindu majority Island. During our previous trip to Indonesia, we visited Bali and were impressed by the grandeur of Hindu monuments, temples and religious rituals practiced by the local population. This time we decided to visit Yogyakarta, which is located in central Java. The largest Buddhist temple Borobudur and one of the largest Hindu temple complexes, Prambanan, are both located near Yogyakarta. Merapi Mount with active volcanic activities is about an hour’s drive from Borobudur and Prambanan.

Australian tourists generally enter Indonesia at Denpasar in Bali or Jakarta in Java if travelling by air. Yogyakarta is well connected with both locations by regular flights. We chose Jakarta for our entry to Indonesia.

Jakarta is the national capital of Indonesia, and is located in the northwest of the Java Island. It is the largest city in Southeast Asia with population estimated to be over eleven million in 2023. Jakarta is the Javanese pronunciation of Sanskrit word ‘Jay Karta’, which means “the achiever of victory”. Being the capital city, Jakarta is the political, economic and cultural centre of Indonesia. During the Dutch colonial era it was called Batavia.

We stayed in Jakarta for a few days and visited some of the local tourist attractions. Notable among them were the Merdeka Square, Monumen Nasional, Museum Nasional, Presidential Palace, Masjid Istiqlal, Cathedral church and a monument of Arjun on a chariot depicting a scene from the Mahabharat. All these attractions are in close proximity to the Merdeka Square.

Merdeka Square is a large square located in central Jakarta. Merdeka is the Indonesian word for freedom or independence. In September 1945, Sukarno, the Indonesian independence leader, declared independence from colonial rule at a grand meeting held in the square. The square measures around one-square kilometre in area and is one of the largest such areas in the world. It is well maintained, with coverings of flowers and greenery. Trees enclose some outer sections of the square. A number of statues and monuments are installed in its different sections. The square is a popular destination for local residents for sports and recreational activities, especially on weekends.

The National Monument, also called Monas (Monumen Nasional), is located in the centre of the square. It is a 132m-high tower surrounded by spacious paved areas near its ground floor, and also on a higher level. Below the monument is an underground museum that displays exhibits highlighting events of Indonesian history from the ancient period to modern age. Hindu and Buddhist periods are munificently displayed in the museum. The monument is reached through an underground tunnel from the ticketing area. Visitors are allowed access to the top of the tower by a lift. Tourists crowd the area, and even during a lean period, one has to wait for hours to obtain access to the top floor of the monument.

The monument hosts national events such as military parades as well as civil demonstrations. Surrounding the Monument is a park with a musical fountain and a deer enclosure, where they roam freely.

Masjid Istiqlal is the largest mosque in Southeast Asia. Its dome is 45m across and the minaret tops 90m high. Directly opposite the mosque is a huge cathedral church.

The Presidential palace, National Museum and many government buildings are located around the Merdeka Square. Not far from the Museum, Arjun’s monument is a reminder of the ancient Indian connection of the region.

The National Museum is full of displays depicting Hindu gods and goddesses, kings and queens, Buddha and many stone pillars with Sanskrit inscriptions. At the entrance of the museum, there is large forecourt, which is full of objects of Hindu and Buddhist origin, found in different regions of the Indonesian archipelagos.

From Jakarta, we travelled to Yogyakarta. It is around an hour’s flight from Jakarta.

Yogyakarta is the capital of Special Region of Yogyakarta in central Java. Yogyakarta is named after the Indian city Ayodhya, the birthplace of Shree Ram, the main protagonist of the Ramayan. Its English translation is a “city fit to prosper”. The major attractions in the city are the Sultan’s Palace, known as Kraton, Taman Sari (also a palace), fort Benteng Vredeburg and a number of museums.

The region was previously known as Bhumi Mataram, the Javanese word derived from Sanskrit for “Mother Earth”. King Sanjay was the founder and the first king of the Mataram kingdom. Contemporary to Sanjay was another king named Shailendra, who ruled the adjoining region. The Sanjay dynasty kings were Shaivite Hindus and Shailendra kings were followers of Mahayan Buddhism. These two dynasties were great builders.

Major tourist attractions outside the city such as Borobudur, Prambanan and other Buddhist and Hindu temples were built during their time. An adventure tourist attraction, the Merapi mount with active volcanic activity, is also located in this region.

Borobudur is translated as ‘Buddha Vihar’ or ‘Buddha on Hills’ or Supreme Buddha. “Boro” means Vihar as well as hills and supreme, and “Budur” means Buddha. It is the largest Buddhist temple in the world. It is a UNESCO listed World Heritage Site. Borobudur is located 42 km from Yogyakarta. Mountains and hills surround it. It was built between the end of the 7th century and the beginning of the 8th century. It has the form of a Stupa, which contains sacred objects as a symbol of respect for Buddha. Shailendra dynasty kings who ruled over the area from the end of the 7th century to the 9th century built this grand temple.

The base of the temple is 123m x123m square and its original height was 42 meters. The height has reduced due to damage from lightening strikes and earthquakes.  The temple consists of nine stacked platforms, of which six are square and three circular. A central dome tops it. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and originally there were 504 Buddha statues. Seventy-two Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa surround the central dome. The relief panels depict the life story of Buddha from birth to his Nirvan. The design of the temple conforms to the style of Mahayan Buddhism.

All visitors must wear specially designed slippers made of leaves to ascend the temple. The access road to the temple passes through a huge park lined with trees and flower gardens. Established Ashok and Peepal trees are grown along the access route. Their original saplings were brought from India.

Borobudur lay hidden under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth for centuries. It is believed that the temple was deserted when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.  It was rediscovered and unearthed in 1835. Subsequently through many restoration works, the temple has attained its current form. It attracts a large number of tourists from all over the world.

A number of other Buddhist temples including the Pawan and Mendut temples are located in the vicinity of Borobudur.

Merapi Mount is an active volcanic site, which last erupted on 11 March 2023. The mount can be seen from the Borobudur temple on a clear day. One can see smoke emitting from the mount cone. The word Merapi is derived from Meru, the legendary mountain, which is believed to be located on the centre of the earth. Tour operators arrange tours up to the base of the mountain. A museum located at the base displays scenes relating to the mount, terrain and volcanic eruptions.

Prambanan is the Javanese pronunciation of Sanskrit Parabrahma, the supreme God. The term Prambanan is used for the Hindu temple complex, which consists of around two hundred forty temples. It is a UNESCO listed World Heritage Site. The complex is arranged in three rectangular courtyards. Sixteen temples were originally built in the central courtyard. The remaining temples were housed in the second courtyard, which surrounded the central area. The third courtyard, surrounding the second, was a green space with an external wall.

Prambanan ruins – East Java (Indonesia)see more photo of Indonesia …

Sanjay dynasty kings built this temple complex. The first temple was built around 850 AD. According to an inscription found in the region, the Shiva temple was inaugurated on 12 November 856. It was built to honour Lord Shiva, and its original name was Shivalay, the house of Shiva. The whole complex was completed over many years.

The temples were abandoned in the middle of the tenth century. A devastating eruption of the Mount Merapi volcano or a political power struggle is assumed to be the reason for the neglect. The temples collapsed during a major earthquake in the 16th century.

In the eighteen-century, the ruins attracted the attention of western archaeologists who prepared reports on them. The government of the time took a keen interest in the findings. Subsequently, restoration works started which continue to date.

The main temples in the central courtyard were dedicated to Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu, their mounts and some other still unidentified deities. They are the main attractions of the site and are identified as Prambanan temple. It is the largest Hindu temple complex of ancient Java.

The Shiva temple is the largest building located in the centre. It is 47m high and its base measures 34m x 34m. Its Garbh-Grih is located at elevation and is accessible through steep stone stairs. Large standing statues of Shiva Mahadev, Mahaguru Agastya, Mahishasur Mardini and a sitting statue of Ganesh are located in separate rooms in four directions of the temple at the Garbh-Grih level. They are accessible through their own distinct stairways.

The Brahma temple is located to the south of the Shiva temple. Its’ square base measures 20m x 20m and it is 33m high. It has only one room as Garbh-Grih accommodating the statue of Brahma. It can be reached through a stone stairway.

The Vishnu temple is located to the north of the Shiva temple. It is identical in layout and structure to the Brahma temple, with a statue of Vishnu in the Garbh-Grih. Many visitors can be seen in the mode of supplication to the divine statues.

Secondary temples that include the Nandi temple, Hansa temple and Garuda temple are dedicated to their respective mounts and face the primary temples. In addition, there are other temples in the central courtyard. Visitors are allowed a Darshan of statues in the main three temples. The Garbh-Grihs of other temples are not open to visitors. None of the temples is used for active worship.

The temple walls are full of relief panels, depicting stories from ancient India. The reliefs on the Shiva and Brahma temples display stories from the Ramayan. The Vishnu temple wall reliefs depict stories relating to Krishna from the Bhagavat Puran. A regular show of the Ramayan ballet or Ramleela episodes is played in an area adjoining the main temples.

The temples in the central court are maintained in good condition and are the main attraction of the site. To view the temples in the outer areas, one has to ride a car-train, which is driven regularly in the complex.

In addition to the main Prambanan temple, there are many other temples in the Yogyakarta region. Notable among them are the Sajiwan temple, Plaosan temple and Kalasan temple. The whole region reminds visitor of its glorious ancient Indian heritage.

Attraction of local inhabitants to their heritage is noticeable in this region. Many shops have their Sanskrit names. Statues of Ganesh, Buddha, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Garuda and other Indian characters can be seen in hotels and shops.

Indian Legacy in Thailand and Laos

My wife and I travelled to Thailand and Laos to familiarise with their culture and history. Both countries are located on the Indochina peninsula of Southeast Asia. The majority of the population in both countries follow Theravad Buddhism, which has close cultural and historical links with India.

Thailand is officially known as the Kingdom of Thailand. The kingdom was known as Siam until 1939. The word Siam is the local pronunciation of the Sanskrit word Shyam, which means dark or brown, and is also one of the alternate names of Lord Krishna. Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia and Malaysia share its landline borders. The country has long coastlines in the gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, and shares maritime borders also with India, Indonesia and Vietnam.

The official name of Laos is Lao People’s Democratic Republic. It is a socialist country with a single legal political party. The Party through its Politburo and Central Committee determines government policies for the country. The country is landlocked and shares its borders with Thailand, Myanmar, China, Vietnam and Cambodia.

Thailand – The word Thai means ‘free man’ in the Thai language and Thailand means the land of free people. Thailand has a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. The kings in Thailand are referred to as King Ram with successive numbers. The name Ram was adopted from the name of the Hindu god Ram, an incarnation of Vishnu. The current king is the King Ram X.

The country has a population of around 70 million. More than half of its residents are urban dwellers. Bangkok is the capital and the largest city with a population of over 11 million. It has two airports named Suvarnabhumi airport and Don Mueang airport. We landed at the Suvarnabhumi airport.

The capital city Bangkok is officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, which is composed of Pali and Sanskrit language root words. It is translated in brief as ‘the great city of angels’. The full-length translation of the name is ‘the city of angels, great city of immortals, magnificent city of nine gems, seat of the king, city of royal palaces, city of gods incarnate erected by Vishvakarma at Indra’s behest’.

Bangkok finds its origin as a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century. Because of its strategic location near the mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the newly crowned King Taksin established his capital on the western banks of the River Chao Phraya, which became the base of the Thonburi Kingdom.

In 1782, the King Rama I succeeded Taksin and moved the capital to Rattanakosin on the eastern banks of the River Chao Phraya. His domain became known as the Rattanakosin Kingdom. He started the Chakri dynasty, which is still the ruling royal house of Thailand. The City Pillar, a tourist attraction, was erected on 21 April 1782, which is regarded as the date of foundation of Bangkok as the capital. It eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi and Rattanakosin, which are now central districts of Bangkok.

The city has numerous objects of tourist attractions that include the Grand Palace, Buddhist temples such as Wat Arun, and Wat Phra Kaew among many others, museums, parks, monuments and large shopping centres. The term Wat denotes a Buddhist temple. The River Chao Phraya is the main waterway in the city, on whose banks many tourist attractions are located.

The Grand Palace is a part of large complex that encompasses Wat Phra Kaew, museums, halls and royal buildings. It is a former royal residence, which is now only used on ceremonial occasions. Visitors are allowed to survey only a section of the Grand Palace grounds. Many buildings serving specific royal purposes have intricate designs with Hindu and Buddhist motifs.

Wat Phra Kaew temple complex is the spiritual core of Thai Buddhism. King Ram I commissioned the temple’s construction in 1783. Since then, successive kings have been involved in adding, restoring and embellishing its buildings during their reigns as a means of gaining religious merit and glorifying their dynasty.

Many important state and royal ceremonies are held within the temple each year, presided by the king in person and attended by government officials. This designates the temple the nation’s preeminent place of worship and a national shrine for the monarchy and the state. Throughout the years, kings have donated sacred and valuable objects to the temple, making it a treasury as well.

The Emerald Buddha is enshrined in the Wat Phra Kaew and hence the temple is commonly known as the Temple of Emerald Buddha. It is considered to be an object of national veneration. The statue of Buddha is carved in the mode of meditation from a block of Jasper gemstone. It is located high up on a tiered base in an altar of wood designed to represent the aerial chariot of a heavenly being. Because of its green colour it is called Emerald Buddha.

Ramakian Murals depicting episodes from the Thai version of the Ramayan are displayed along the Wat Phra Kaew temple complex perimeter, starting from the entrance gate. They are under cover and spread over 2 km on the wall. They are well maintained and easy to understand. Descriptions are provided near the scenes.

Wat Arun is located in the Thonburi district on the western banks of the River Chao Phraya. On this site, there had previously been a temple from at least the late 16th century. After the fall of Ayutthaya, King Taksin came across the shrine at sunrise and interpreted it as an auspicious sign. He took control of the site and established the new capital. He built a royal palace and a temple. The Emerald Buddha, which was brought from Vientiane, the capital of Laos, was housed in the temple.

After the capital and the Emerald Buddha were relocated to the other side of the river in Rattanakosin, King Ram II renamed the temple after the Hindu god Arun also know as Usha or Dawn.

It is believed that King Ram II himself designed the main Buddha image at the temple. He started building the 82 m high central Khmer style tower, which was completed by King Ram III. Slightly lower towers are located on the four sides of the central one. Steep stairs lead to the top of the central tower. Tourists generally climb up to the lower level. The temple looks superb in size, designed with ornate floral mosaics made from broken, multihued porcelain.

Frequent cross-river ferries run over to Wat Arun Pier on the Chao Phraya River. The magnificent towers of the temple present a mesmerising view from the river.

Ayutthaya – From Bangkok we undertook a daytrip to Ayodhya, spelled Ayutthaya in Thai English. The town is located about 90 km north of Bangkok. Most tourists visit the site known as Ayutthaya Historical Park, which is the area of the former capital of Siam, Ayutthaya.

King Uthong founded Ayutthaya in 1350 on an island surrounded by three rivers. He was also known by the name King Ram Thibodhi I. Scholars are divided over his origin. Some consider him of Khmer origin from Cambodia. Others believe him to be from the Chola kingdom in India. Despite his uncertain origin, naming his capital Ayodhya suggests that he must have been a devout follower of the Hindu god Ram.

According to contemporary sources and maps, Ayutthaya was laid out according to systematic and rigid city planning grids, consisting of roads, canals, and moats around all the principal structures. The scheme took maximum advantage of the city’s position in the midst of three rivers. It employed hydraulic systems for water management, which was pioneering technology at the time.

The capital flourished for more than 400 years and was an influential centre of power and commerce in the region. During its heyday, Ayutthaya had magnificent palaces, temples and well maintained public buildings.

The city was attacked and destroyed by the Burmese army in 1767. It was scorched to the ground and its inhabitants were forced to abandon the city. The city was never rebuilt.

The site was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List as Ayutthaya Historical Park in 1991. The park comprises four major temples known as Wat Phra Ram, Wat Phra Si Sanphet, Wat Mahathat, Wat Ratchaburana, and the Royal Palace and Wiharn Phra Mongkol Bophit. Tour organisers include these famous sights in the itinerary.

Outside the park itself, historical sites are randomly scattered along the west, south and eastern parts of the outer sections. Many of the archaeological finds from the ruins around Ayutthaya are exhibited at Chao Sam Phraya National Museum. By seeing the remains at the site and displays in the museum, one can imagine the status of the kingdom in its glory.

Laos – Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. Nearly three-quarters of Laos is covered in mountains and forested hills. The current population of the country is around 7.7 million.

Laos finds its origin in the historical kingdom of Lancang, which held the area of present day Laos from 1353 to 1707. Following the period of internal conflict, Lancang broke up into three separate kingdoms, Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Chapasak. In 1893, the three kingdoms became a French protectorate and were jointly named Laos. It became an independent country in 1953.

From Bangkok’s Don Mueang airport, we flew to Wattay airport in Vientiane. Vientiane is the capital and largest city of Laos with a population of around one million. The city is located on the banks of Mekong River, the third largest river in Asia. The Mekong River is vital as a transportation route for cargo and passengers, a source of electricity at dams, a water supply system for crops, and a home to fish, an important food in the diet of Laotian people.

Vientiane contains a number of tourist attractions, which we visited during our stay. Important among them are Wat Si Saket, Wat Chanthabuli, Wat Ong Teu Mahavihan, Patuxai, Pha That Luang, and River Side Night Market.

Wats – Wat Si Saket is the city’s oldest surviving temple. In its name, Si is derived from the Sanskrit title of veneration Shree. Saket is an alternate name of Ayodhya.  The temple was built in 1818 in a contemporary style of Buddhist architecture at the time, with surrounding terraces and an ornate five-tiered roof. The temple houses a museum with a large collection of items relating to its history and religion.

Wat Chanthabuli and Wat Ong Teu Mahavihan are other temples located along the River and are good locations for meditation and prayers.

The Patuxai, which is translated as Victory Gate, is a massive concrete arch. It is a reminiscent of the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. The monument commemorates Laos’s resilience and eventual independence, as well as recognising those who lost their lives in the wars for independence.

Its exterior features Buddhist symbols and Hindu deities, with 5 ornate towers built in the traditional Laotian style. The 4 corner towers and 5th central tower that crowns the arch symbolise the 5 Buddhist principles of thoughtful amiability, flexibility, honesty, honour and prosperity. Intricate carvings of lotus leaves, statues of Apsaras, the divine dancers and Nagas, serpents are carved on the Patuxai. The structure has beautiful walls and ceilings with paintings of gods, goddesses and elephants.

Pha That Luang or Great Stupa is a large gold covered Buddhist Stupa. Emperor Ashok of the Indian Mauryan Empire is believed to have sent Buddhist missionaries to the ancient kingdom of the region. They brought a sacred relic believed to be the breastbone of Buddha and enshrined it into the stupa in the 3rd century BC. The structure was rebuilt in the 13th century as a Khmer temple, which later fell into ruin. It was reconstructed in the early 20th century. It is regarded as the most important national monument in Laos as well as a national symbol.

The Vientiane Night Market takes place along the Mekong Riverfront, where one can see rows of stalls selling handicrafts, clothes, and electronics. There is also a children’s playground, a temple, a flower garden and an imposing statue of Chao Anouvong, a national leader, pointing across the Mekong River. Numerous restaurants serve local food along the riverside. There is an amusement park for children. In the night, one can see the lights in Thailand on the opposite side of the river. A long walking path is built along the riverbank.

From Vientiane, we returned to Bangkok and then to Brisbane. In the departure section of the Suvarnabhumi airport, there is a huge scene depicting the churning of the cosmic ocean during the tortoise incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Throughout the trip, we sensed with joy and recognition the influence of ancient India on the religion, language and names of persons and places of the region.

Pitri Paksh Shraddh

The terms Shraddha श्रद्धा and Shraddh श्राद्ध are derived from a common root in Sanskrit. The shraddha means devotion or faith, whereas shraddh refers to a ritual, which is performed with devotion and faith after the death of a person.

In Hinduism, shraddh is a part of the last rite of the dead body known as Antyesthi Sanskar or funeral rite. It is assumed that the shraddh helps the departed soul reach its final destination, which depends upon the Karma, a sum of all actions an individual performs while alive on earth.

Socially, the shraddh signifies an expression of gratitude to the deceased by descendants or relatives. It is a universal human practice, approved in religions and civilisations since ancient times. Its format varies depending on the time, place and status of the deceased.

Mortality – According to the Hindu tradition, an alive human is a combination of physical body and soul. The physical body comprises five basic elements that include earth, water, fire, air, and ether. The soul is the mystical component and non-material essence of a person. It is commonly known as the source of consciousness, Jeev or Pran-vayu. When an individual dies, the soul leaves the body to realise the effects of karma.

Death of living things is a universal and inevitable occurrence and no one is immune to it. It is a painful experience for the loved ones left behind and causes them heartbreak and grief. Philosophical interpretations and platitudes such as death is ‘exchanging an old dress with a new one’, ‘liberation of a soul from its body’, ‘birth and death are a fact of life’, etc. generally do not console the griever.

Stirred by a sense of gratitude, the bereaved commonly pay homage and offer charity in the name of the deceased person. The dharma-shastras recommend elaborate rituals, which include prayers for the peace of the deceased and offering of material goods for use by the disembodied soul. These rituals are to be reasonable within the means of the family, to avoid a further increase in hardship following the death of the family member.

In a traditional rural environment in India and in orthodox Hindu families, when it becomes clear that death of the person is imminent, family members and friends gather near the dying individual. They offer Ganga-water and Tulasi leaf in the person’s mouth. Sacred verses from the Gita, the Ramayan or any other preferred texts relevant to the occasion are recited nearby to generate a peaceful and serene environment.

Once death has occurred, the preparation for cremation starts. Cremation of the dead body is done soon after the death, preferably on the same day. The practice varies among different communities and sects. Usually the body is washed and wrapped in a white cloth if the dead person is a man or a widow. If it is a woman whose husband is still alive, her body is dressed as an adorned married woman. Grieving for the deceased is a natural response however, on the death of an extremely old person, it is generally discouraged.

The dead body is carried on a bier made of bamboos and transported to the cremation ground. It is placed on a specially arranged pile of wood, the legs facing south. South is believed to be the region of Yam, the god of death. He is also known as Dharmaraj, responsible for deciding the next stage for the departed soul.

Sandalwood and clarified butter are generously added to the woodpile to accelerate wood combustion. A priest recites Mantras for the occasion. The eldest son or the person authorised to perform the rite, known as fire-donor, walks around the woodpile with the body in an anti-clockwise direction. He carries a pitcher filled with water, which is allowed to trickle during circumambulation symbolically purifying the pyre. Now a days daughters and female relatives also perform the offering of fire and associated rituals.

Following the circumambulation, the fire donor lights the fire near the dead body’s mouth. Once the pyre is ablaze, the performer and closest relatives circumambulate the burning pyre one or more times. The Kapala-kriya or cracking of the skull is the last stage of combustion. The offering of body to the fire is considered to be a sacrifice. In the process, the physical elements of the body are returned to the nature.

Once the body has completely consumed, the fire is extinguished. The ash along with any bone particles is collected and the site is cleansed with water. The collected ash and bone remains are immersed into a river considered sacred such as the Ganga or any other flowing stream or sea, or scattered on a mountaintop or otherwise disbursed, in accordance with wishes of the dead person or family members. This process is called Ashthi Visarajan and must be completed before the tenth day after death.

The dead body is considered polluted. All those who attend the cremation or are exposed to cremation smoke must take a shower or dip themselves into a body of water as soon as possible, following the cremation.

Where electric crematorium is available, the ritual is performed before submitting the corpses to the furnace in a modified form. The process varies on many factors including the place, sect to which the family adhere and the family’s social condition.

Nine days following the death and in some regions from the date of cremation are observed as a mourning period. During this time, the soul is believed to be floating around in limbo. The Pret Khand section of Garud Puran describes the status of the soul in detail during the grieving phase. Some families engage a priest to recite these sections to soothe their grieving.

The fire-donor lives an austere life during this time. He or she offers a Tarpan of water mixed with sesame seed and other items and lights a Diya, an earthen lamp in the name of the deceased every day until the tenth.

On the tenth day, the purification ceremony is performed.  The main performer and other male family members shave their heads, beard, trim their nails and take a ritual bath. Women also perform a ritual bath. These practices are considered cleansing and vary among different groups, sects and regions. The house is cleaned and prepared for the next stage of activities.

Antyesthi Shraddh – Following the cleansing, the shraddh rituals are performed under the supervision of the presiding priest. The shraddh involves Pind-dan, offering of rice balls; Panch-bali, five propitiatory offerings; Pitr-bali, offering to ancestors; and  tarpans, offering of water along with barley, sesame seeds, rice, milk and flowers to deities, sages and ancestors.

On the tenth day, the pind-dan is performed to the deceased. On the eleventh day pitr-bali is offered to ancestors and panch-bali to five different beings that include the cow, the crow, the dog, the deities and the ant. The tarpans are tendered to deities, sages and ancestors. In the name of ancestors, the presiding priest and guests are offered food and donations.

On the twelfth day, pind-dan and tarpans are offered to the deceased, ancestors, deities and sages. In addition, the materials that may be required in the afterlife of the deceased person are donated to the presiding priest. It is believed that charity offered to the priest will help the deceased maintain a dignified next life. Some sects and social groups have questioned and modified this part of the process.

On completion of the religious ritual, a Bhandara or feast is organised. Food is offered to the priests, guests and the poor to mark the completion of the ceremony.

These rituals grant the deceased a status of ancestral deity. He or she becomes a Pitr or ancestral deity and resides with other ancestors in the southern quarter of the sky and is worshipped together with them by his/her family, especially during religious events.

In some families, the shraddh is repeated at the anniversary of the death, which becomes a remembrance day for the descendants. Others perform it every month for the first year and then yearly. In some communities, this day marks a day when the poor and needy are offered food in memory of the dead.

The dharma-shastras, grihya-sutras and pauranic texts have devoted many chapters on the shraddh. The process described in Purans practically follows the Grihya-sutra and Manu and Yagyavalkya smritis. The Purans describe a number of shraddh and recommend sacred places such as the banks of the River Ganga, Prayagraj, Varanasi, Gaya and other selected sites for their performance.

Gaya shraddh – The Garud Puran highly praises the performance of shraddh at Gaya during the pitri-paksh, the dark fortnight in the Vikram Samvat month of Ashwin (September-October). Stories from the Ramayan and the Mahabharat further enhance the importance of shraddh at Gaya.

It is believed that Lord Ram along with his brother Lakshman and wife Sita performed shraddh in Gaya for the salvation of his father. Karna of the Mahabharat performed shraddh at Gaya, after he was refused food in the heaven on the ground that he had never donated food to a deserving person. He subsequently regained his position in the abode of gods and deities.

The pind-dan and tarpan are main rituals at Gaya and hence the shraddh performed there is also called pind-dan. Socially, when both parents have passed away, then performing shraddh at Gaya during the pitri-paksh is considered to be a duty of their progeny.

Gaya is a major pilgrimage site for Hindus, Buddhist and Jains. Especially for Hindus it is believed that ancestors expect their descendants to perform a shraddh for them in Gaya. During the pitri-paksh hundreds of thousands of Hindus from all over the world visit Gaya and perform the shraddh.

Generally, the process of shraddh is supposed to be held at numerous locations in Gaya over a period of a fortnight. However, it has been simplified and can be completed in a single day, to accommodate those who have limited time to perform it.

The one-day shraddh is performed at three locations that include the banks of the Phalgu River, in the courtyard of Vishnupad temple and near the Akshayvat tree. At each spot the performer or Yajman sits on the floor facing south and the priest facing the performer. The performer makes pind-balls of specific materials, which are procured before starting the ritual. The yajman performs the Puja as directed by the priest. The puja includes the offering of pinds and tarpans.

The procedure is repeated at each of the three locations. Pind at each location is also offered to presiding deities Phalgu River, Vishnupad temple and Akshayvat respectively. After the ceremony, the priest is offered Dakshina or remuneration for the service. On returning home, donations in the form of food, cash or feast depending upon the choice of the family are made.

If the performer arrives at Gaya in the morning, then after completing the shraddh one can depart the same evening. A local priest is required for performing the ritual. The priest can be arranged in advance online or though contacts or other relevant agencies.

It is believed that there is no need for further shraddh once it has been completed at Gaya.

Adapted practice – The death related rituals described above have an ancient origin. Many of the procedures have been modified and continue to be attuned to suit modern times and distant locations. Expatriate Hindus experience a social environment, which is quite different from India. Accordingly, they have modified rituals regarding death, cremation and shraddh.

For example, in Australia an old person in normal circumstances dies in a hospital or in an old person’s home. If the dying person or his/her family wish to recite sacred verses then a priest is arranged for recital.

After death, the corpse is stored in a mortuary and an arrangement is made with a funeral company, which provides the cremation facility.

On the cremation day, if the family decides to bring the body home then the dead body is brought home in a coffin and pre-cremation rituals are performed with the help of a priest. The body is then transported to the funeral house where family members and friends gather for a last visitation and goodbye.

Obituaries are read and sacred texts are recited. The pre-cremation ritual is performed. People offer flowers and walk around the coffin. After completing these rituals, the coffin is taken inside to the furnace area and finally delivered into the furnace.

If due to some reason the coffin is not brought home, and is delivered directly to the funeral house, then the rituals stated for home are performed there.

After a day or two, ashes are returned to the family. The shraddh including pind-dan and tarpan are performed at the home on the 11th or 12th day. It includes a feast for the family and friends. Some families organise a bhandara at a local temple and make donations to temples or charitable organisations. Usually, the deceased’s family makes the decisions regarding the format of the entire process.

Maha Kumbh Mela

The Kumbh Mela, literally translated as Pitcher Fair or Aquarius Fair, refers to the congregation of pilgrims in Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik on the riverbanks to take a Snan or dip in the rivers on designated auspicious dates during the period from Paush to Phalgun (January – February). It is the largest peaceful gathering of pilgrims in the world attended by people from around the globe.

The Kumbh Mela location in a particular year depends upon the position of planets, Sun and Jupiter in relation to Zodiac constellations. The fair is rotated between Haridwar on the banks of River Ganga, Nasik on the banks of River Godavari, Ujjain on the banks of River Khsipra and Prayagraj at Triveni Sangam, the confluence of three rivers namely Ganga, Yamuna and invisible Saraswati.

The Kumbh Mela lasts several weeks. It begins with the Paush Purnima Snan, and concludes on Maha Shivratri, the day of last important Snan.

Bathing in the rivers is the most important ritual for pilgrims. This can be done every day but certain days are considered more auspicious. The Makar Sankranti is believed to be the most important day for bathing. The largest number of people takes a dip in the waters on this day.

The ceremonial bath is known as Shahi Snan or Royal Bath. It is led by the Naga Sadhus, ascetic warriors, who immerse themselves in the sacred water in a large procession. Other sadhus and the general masses then follow the ritual of bathing.

Traditional Hindus believe that bathing in the sacred rivers on these occasions cleanses the mortals of sins incurred in the past and encourages pursuing a virtuous life in the future.

The most dedicated pilgrims and groups set up their residence on the site to experience the Mela from the beginning to the end. Others visit on the special bathing days. Many devotees stay for a certain period, observing austerity, giving alms and bathing at sunrise every day.

People from almost all sections of the Hindu religion and associated religious organisations attend the Mela. Sadhus from different denominations move in a procession, displaying the diversity of the Hindu ascetic community.

In addition to the bathing, many other religious, cultural, entertainment and social activities are performed during the Mela, promoting a range of ideas, objectives and philosophies.

Devotees sing and chant devotional songs, creating a spiritual ambience. Many guests engage in yoga and meditation techniques to strive for mental and physical wellbeing. Renowned saints and gurus deliver lectures on spiritual and philosophical topics imparting knowledge to the assembled audiences. Charitable organisations offer meals and provide other services free or at nominal costs.

The Kumbh Mela is an annual event, which follows a twelve-year cycle. In the twelfth year, it is known as Maha Kumbh and in the sixth year Ardh Kumbh. This year it is Maha Kumbh.

In 2025, Prayagraj is hosting the Maha Kumbh, which starts on January 13, 2025, with the Paush Purnima Snan, and concludes on February 26, 2025, the Maha Shivratri day. Other important dates for bathing are:
(1) Makar Sankranti (First Shahi Snan), 14 January 2025;
(2) Mauni Amavasya (Second Shahi Snan), 29 January 2025;
(3) Vasant Panchami (Third Shahi Snan), 3 February 2025, and
(4) Maghi Purnima, 12 February 2025.

About 400 million people are expected to participate in the Prayagraj Maha Kumbh Mela. The state government, which has significant experience in organising the Kumbh Mela of previous years, is responsible for orchestrating it also this year. Management and supervision for smooth running of an extensive infrastructure, with attention to ensuring safety and access to hygienic facilities for all attendees is the responsibility of the state administration.

During the Ardh Kumbh Mela in 2019 in Prayagraj, 200 million visitors were recorded, with about 50 million partaking in the ritual bath on the most auspicious day, the Makar Sankranti.

For the 2025 Maha Kumbh Mela, a designated area has been established as a separate administrative district for four months. The total area is divided into 25 sections spread over 40 square kilometres. It comprises accommodation, roads, electricity and water supplies, waste disposal, communication towers and 11 hospitals.

Temporary houses and large tents with suitable facilities are set up to accommodate the visitors. A typical large tent has space for up to 20,000 people to stay. People are expected to bathe in the waters along a 12 kilometre long stretch.

About 20,000 workers are responsible for keeping the area and its more than 150,000 temporary toilets clean. Around 50,000 security personnel are expected to keep the festivities safe.

More than 2,500 cameras, some powered by AI, are installed to scan crowd movement and send density information to four central control rooms, from where officials can quickly deploy personnel to avoid stampedes.

Genesis – It is believed that the Kumbh Mela has a prehistoric origin and relates to the tale of Samudra Manthan, the churning of the ocean, found in Vedic texts. In order to become immortal, Devas, deities and Daityas, demons decided to drink Amrit, ambrosia, which would be obtained from the ocean by its churning. They jointly started the churning and in the process, initially a number of other valuables appeared that were amicably distributed.

In the end, sage Dhanavantri surfaced from the ocean holding a Kumbh or pitcher filled with Amrit. Deities and demons started quarrelling over it. In the meantime, an eagle, the mount of Lord Vishnu, grasped the Kumbh with the goal of transporting it to Vishnu. En route, a part of the Amrit spilled over and fell into the rivers in Prayagraj, Haridwar, Nasik and Ujjain. As people learnt about this event, they started gathering and bathing in the waters of these places to ensure contact with the Amrit. Their assembly eventually resulted in the fair renowned as the Kumbh Mela.

Another reason for the name Kumbh Mela is the astrological position of planets in the zodiac. In Hindu astrology, the Kumbh Rashi stands for the zodiac sign Aquarius, the water carrier in Latin. The Kumbh Mela in Haridwar is held when the planet Jupiter is in the Aquarius constellation. This also leads to the assumption that Haridwar was the location where the initial Kumbh Mela was held.

There is no consensus on when the festival started. Gathering of people and taking a dip in sacred water is described in ancient texts. The Buddhist Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang has mentioned the Hindu bathing rituals at the confluence of the rivers in Prayagraj in 644 CE. According to some scholars, this is the earliest surviving historical account of the Kumbh Mela. Some believe that Adi Shankaracharya started the gathering for philosophical discussion and debate to create consensus on religious topics among various denominations of the Hindus.

Tulasi Das has noted in Ram Charit Manas the gathering at the confluence of three rivers in Prayagraj during the Kumbh Mela.

The Kumbh Mela has been included in the UNESCO’s Representative List of Cultural Heritage of Humanity, which was established in 2008. It aims to record and ensure better protection of important cultural heritage events, skills and knowledge worldwide.

Specific days for bathing during the Kumbh Mela have religious significance, as described in the following sections.

Paush Purnima falls on the full moon day of the bright fortnight in the month of Paush. It is believed that a person who takes a holy bath at pilgrimage places on this auspicious day, donates to the poor and makes offering to the solar deity, the Sun, will be cleansed of their sins and attain moksha following death.

It is also known as Shakambhari Purnima named after Shakambhari, an incarnation of goddess Durga. People worship Goddess Durga and chant mantras to seek her divine blessings. Devotees observe Purnima Vrat, which is believed to bring good luck and remove all obstacles in life.

Makar Sankranti is celebrated on 14 January, marking the beginning of auspicious Uttarayan, the northward movement of the Sun. This occasion marks the transition of the Sun from Sagittarius or Dhanu to Capricorn or Makar in the zodiac. The festival is dedicated to the deity Sun. On this day, the Sun God is especially worshipped and offered prayers.

This festival is celebrated across different regions of India. It is known by varying names, including Makar Sankranti, Lohri, Kite festival, Magh Bihu and Pongal. Although the festival has different names, all observe strong and clear links with the harvest season for farmers.

A large fair takes place at Gangasagar in West Bengal where devotees come from far and wide to bathe at the site of River Ganga’s merging in the Bay of Bengal. The first Shahi Snan at the Kumbh Mela takes place on this day. Millions of people perform a holy dip at the confluence of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati in Prayagraj.

Makar Sankranti is a time of celebration and thanks giving, and is marked by a variety of rituals and charity.

Mauni Amavasya day falls on the 15th day of dark fortnight in the month of Magh. The Sanskrit word Maun means silence. People take the vows of silence and observe Maun Vrat during this day. It is believed that observing the Maun Vrat on the day of Mauni Amavasya helps purify the mind, body, and soul.

A ritual of offering of water, known as tarpan, to ancestors is performed on this day. People perform sacred rituals to seek blessings from the departed ancestors. On this day, the customary rituals include Pitri Tarpan, Pitri Dan and feeding of deserving persons. People donate to the needy and perform charity. It is a time of self-inspection and inner reflection. The second Shahi Snan at the Kumbh Mela takes place on this day.

Vasant Panchami is an important spring festival, which is celebrated on the fifth day of the bright fortnight in the month of Magh. It marks the start of preparations for welcoming spring season and Holi, the festival of colour, which occurs forty days later.

Vasant Panchami is dedicated to Saraswati, who is the goddess of knowledge, language, music and arts. She symbolises creative energy and power in all its forms. Educational institutions and temples organise special events dedicated to Saraswati. Poetic and musical gatherings are held in her reverence.

It is considered an auspicious day to start education. Many parents prefer their young children begin reading and writing on this propitious day. The third and last Shahi Snan takes place on this day during the Kumbh Mela.

Maghi Purnima falls on the full moon day in the bright fortnight in the month of Magh. The whole month of Magh is considered auspicious and Purnima being the last day becomes especially important for devout Hindus. This day marks the start of ripening of winter crops. Farmers offer prayers and express gratitude for a better harvest.

People bathe in holy waters, donate to charitable causes and offer prayers to their preferred deities. Many visit renowned sacred rivers such as Ganga, Yamuna and others. A dip at Sangam in Prayagraj is specifically desirable on this day. During the Kumbh Mela, a large number of people bathe at Triveni Sangam.

Maha Shivratri is a festival dedicated to Lord Shiv. It is celebrated on the thirteenth day of the dark fortnight in the month of Phalgun. According to one legend, on this night, Shiv performed the heavenly dance of creation, preservation and regeneration. Believers chant hymns, read Shiv scriptures and partake in the performance of the cosmic dance remembering Shiv’s omnipresence. According to another legend, Shiv drank the poison Halahal, which emerged during the Samudra Manthan on this day.

Being an auspicious day, bathing in sacred rivers during the Kumbh Mela is considered propitious. This is the last official Snan of the Kumbh Mela.

Significance – The Kumbh Mela plays significant roles in uniting the people of India by bringing them at one place from all over the country. It provides a communal spiritual space for Hindus to gather and participate in a major religious event. It is the time for devout Hindus to reflect on lives lived so far and yet to come, and become linked to mythological events of ancient times.

It also offers opportunities to discuss issues of common religious, social and cultural interest. For example, it had provided a forum for connecting the Indian population during the Indian Independence movement.  In 1906, the Sanatan Dharma Sabha met at the Prayagraj Kumbh Mela and resolved to start the Banaras Hindu University. In 1964, the Vishva Hindu Parishad was founded at the Haridwar Kumbh Mela. It continues to offer opportunities for politicians, social workers, religious leaders and the masses to gather in large numbers, reflect on commonalities and deliberate on issues of contemporary national interests.

Raja Harishchandra

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Satyamev Jayate, Truth alone Triumphs, a part of the Mantra in the Mundak Upanishad, is the state motto of modern India. The text is inscribed in Devnagari script at the base of the Lion Capital of Ashok forming it the Indian national emblem.

Truth is God was the firm belief of Mahatma Gandhi, which he comprehended after years of analysis of the relationship between Truth and God. He called his freedom movement Satyagrah or Insistence on Truth.

Ancient Indian texts assert, “The earth is supported by the power of Truth. It is the power of Truth that makes the sun shine and the wind blow. All things rest upon truth.” Similar statements are found throughout Hindu scriptures.

Truth has been highly esteemed in Hinduism throughout different eras of its evolution. Numerous stories and legends highlight the extent to which people subjected themselves to hardship and pain for upholding the truth in their life. Raja Harishchnadra’s story is one of the most remarkable legends demonstrating the resolve of a person to be truthful to his words. His name has become a proverbial term that points to someone who speaks truth even if that truth may be harmful to  him or to his close relatives or friends.

His legend appears in several texts including the Aitarey Brahaman, Mahabharat, Ramayan, Bhagavad Puran, Devi Bhagavad Puran and Markandey Puran. The details vary from one narrative to another. The Markandey Puran version of the legend contains a comprehensive description of events in the life of the truthful king.

Harishchandra was born in the Ikshvaku dynasty, the same dynasty in which lord Ram was born in a later age.  His father was Satyavrat, a legendry king who became famous as Trishanku.

After his father, Harishchandra became the king of Koshal kingdom with its capital in Ayodhya. He was married to Shaivya also known as Taramati. They had a young son named Rohitashva. Harishchandra was a mighty king, an emperor whose authority was accepted by all other kings. He was kind, generous and just. He treated his subject like his own child. He was truthful to his words beyond measure.

Once Indra, the king of deities, convened a meeting in his assembly hall to discuss affairs of the world. Vasishtha and Vishvamitra were present in the meeting as representatives of the earth. Vasishtha was the royal priest of Ikshvaku dynasty kings. He was a well-recognised Brahmarishi, a prestigious rank in spiritual hierarchy. Vishvamitra was originally a Kshatriya king but became a Brahmin through his penance and spiritual feats. There was an ongoing rivalry between the two great seers of their time.

During the meeting in heaven, Indra asked whether there was a king on the earth who was powerful, just and truthful to his words. Vasishtha responded and told the assembly that Harishchandra the king of Ayodhya was such a king. All other kings accepted his authority. His subjects loved him like their parents. He performed religious sacrifices and offered charities to Brahmins and worthy recipients. He was truthful to his words in every respect.

 Vishvamitra disliked Vasishtha’s admiration of Harishchandra and objected to his assessment. He informed the gathering that he would prove Vasishtha wrong. Vishvamitra returned to his hermitage on earth and started designing deceits to prove his statement whilst Vasishtha went to perform his penance.

Some time later, Harishchandra performed a Yagya, royal sacrifice that demonstrated his splendour and regal status. At that time Vishvamitra arrived at his court and asked for donation. Traditionally, it was considered a duty of kings to satisfy Brahmins with gifts. The king happily agreed to his request and ordered his treasurer to give the entreated amount. When the amount was to be disbursed, Vishvamitra left the court stating that let the treasury hold the amount in a trust and he would collect it later.

After this event, once Harishchandra went to the forest on a hunting expedition. There he heard distressing cries of women.  The king along with his escorts followed the direction of the wailing and ultimately arrived at a hermitage, where Vishvamitra was sitting in a meditative position. He had created the illusion of women’s cry. He became angry with the king for disturbing his meditation. The king apologised for the incidence and promised to repair the damage caused by his action at any cost. Vishvamitra took advantage of his statement and demanded his kingdom as reparation.  The king willingly agreed to his demand and returned to the palace.

Next day, Vishvamitra arrived at the king’s court and asked him to handover his kingdom as promised. The king complied. Vishvamitra then instructed him to leave his kingdom along with his wife and son. They were allowed to take only whatever they had on their body. Harishchandra’s subjects objected to this mistreatment and suggested him to decline the transfer of the kingdom but the king opted to honour his words and left the kingdom.

Further, Vishvamitra demanded the amount that was donated to him earlier and held with the king in his treasury. Now the treasury was also handed over to Vishvamitra as a part of the kingdom. Despite his precarious situation, the king agreed to pay him the agreed amount. Vishvamitra allowed him one month’s time to pay.

Harishchandra along with his wife and son roamed in the forest and survived on roots and fruits. They arrived at Varanasi where they bathed in the River Ganga and worshipped deities in temples.  The allotted time to pay the debt was nearing. Vishvamitra appeared before him and demanded his money. Harishchandra had not anything left to pay his debt. He decided to sell himself to get money but his wife objected. Shaivya insisted that she be sold advising him to recover her when he had enough money.

Harishchandra auctioned his wife and son in an open market place. A Brahmin in Varanasi bought them as a domestic servant to help his wife. The Brahmin paid him a good amount, which he gave to Vishvamitra. Vishvamitra was yet not satisfied and demanded more. Vishvamitra was willing to free the king from his debt, if Harishchandra declared that he was not liable to pay. Vishvamitra wished to lead the king to falsehood to prove his point that Harishchandra was not truthful as described by Vasishtha. However, Harishchandra was determined to pay the debt in full and did not succumb to falsehood.

When a few hours were left before the set time for payment of debt, Harishchandra decided to sell himself. He announced his readiness to be a slave for a certain amount that will meet Vishvamitra’s demand. A rich person of lowest social hierarchy known as Chandal expressed his willingness to buy him and pay the requested amount. He was the master of the cremation ground of the city and also an executioner. He was looking for a person to work for him. Harishchandra was unwilling to sell himself to such a person. Vishvamitra appeared before him at that moment and demanded the owing amount. Harishchandra begged Vishvamitra to accept him as his slave to save him from becoming a slave of Chandal. Vishvamitra accepted him as a slave and then ordered Harishchandra, his newly obtained slave, to serve the Chandal, who paid the huge amount of money to Vishvamitra, satisfying his conditions.

The new owner explained to Harishchandra his duties. He was assigned to guard the cremation ground from intruders and collect taxes from all those who came there to cremate corpses. His duty also included execution of criminals condemned to death by the court. The collected tax was divided amongst the king of the kingdom, the owner of the cremation ground and the person collecting the tax.  Harishchandra as a slave performed his duties diligently. In due course, his physical appearance changed and he looked like a Chandal.

He used to reminisce his past life as a king of Ayodhya with the queen and beautiful son Rohitashva. He thought about the appalling conditions in which his wife and son had been sold. He had no information about their whereabouts or wellbeing anymore.

Shaivya and child Rohitashva served their owner who was very cruel to them. The owner and his wife treated them poorly, and did not give enough food, clothes or shelter. They coerced them to work day and night. The child was regularly sent to collect firewood from the forest. Once as usual Rohitashva went to the forest to bring firewood but he did not return by the evening. Shaivya became alarmed about his safety. He asked the owner to allow her to go and find her son.

Her owner permitted her to go and look for her son only after she had completed all the domestic chores. It was late evening when she went and found her son lying dead on the floor of the forest. A snake had bitten him. She was devastated by this tragedy. No one was present to help her.

She realised her responsibility to perform the last rites of her son. She carried Rohitashva’s corpse to the cremation ground. She had no money to buy wood for cremating the corpse. She tried to collect some unburnt wood at the site to make a pyre. At that moment Harishchandra, the guard of the cremation ground, appeared before her. The woman told her story to the guard who sensed that she could be his wife. The guard sympathised with her but he did not deviate from his duty. He demanded the tax. He told her that he could forgo his own share of the tax but she had to pay the king’s and owner’s shares.

When she expressed inability to pay any tax, Harishchandra noticed her Mangal Sutra, which confirmed his suspicion that she was his wife. She also realised that the guard demanding money was her husband. Shaivya told him that the dead corpse is of their only son Rohitashva’s and begged him to allow her to cremate their son. Harishchandra could not cheat his master and suggested she return to her master and ask for money to cover the cost of cremation.

Shaivya left the corpse at the cremation ground and went to beg for money from her master. On the way a stranger met her and asked about her mission. When she explained, the stranger was moved by her pitiable situation and gave her a pouch of money and went away. In the meantime, police came looking for the thief who had stolen money from the royal treasury. They noticed Shaivya with the moneybag and arrested her.

They brought her to the royal court, which sentenced her to death assuming that she stole the money. She was brought to the execution ground for sentencing. Harishchandra who was guarding the corpse of his son was ordered by the master to perform the execution. When he saw the condemned woman, he recognised her and lamented. However, to obey the order, he raised his axe to sever her head.

At that moment Vishvamitra appeared and asked him to disobey his master’s command. Harishchandra, remaining truthful to his duty to obey his master, did not heed Vishvamitra’s advice and proceeded to fulfil his task. Vishvamitra then forcibly held his hand from executing the woman.

Lord Indra, Brahma and other celestials appeared in the sky and praised Harishchandra’s dedication to truth. Vishvamitra accepted his defeat against Harishchandra’s resolve.

Vishvamitra revealed to Harishchandra the story behind his ordeals perpetuated by him. He endowed all his merits gained through long penance to Harishchandra. The Brahmin who bought his wife and son was Agnidev or fire god. The Chandal was Dharmaraj, also known as Yamraj, the lord of death. 

Deities infused life in Rohitashva who was united with his parents. All three were restored to their previous positions. After ruling his kingdom for a long time Harishchandra attained a permanent position in the heaven.

The story of Raja Harishchandra has reminded generations of Indians the vital importance of the truth in their daily lives and actions, and continues to do so.

Mahakavi Kalidas

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Princess Vidyottama was a highly educated maiden who had defeated many scholars in Shastrath, a debate on philosophical disciplines. She was also arrogant and had declared a condition that she would only marry the person who could defeat her in Shastrath. Her father, the king of Kashi, had instructed the Acharya of the Gurukul to look for a suitably educated groom who could meet the conditions set by his daughter for marriage. Many aspirants tried to win her hand through debate but were unsuccessful. Most of the aspiring candidates were products of the Gurukul and the whole educated community had become annoyed with the princess’ behaviour and wished to teach her a lesson.

One day while passing through a wooded area, the Acharya noticed a man on a tree, who was cutting the branch he was sitting on. The Acharya realised the woodcutter’s stupidity and decided to present him to the princess for debate. He called the man down and found out that he was uneducated but interested in learning.  The Acharya promised him that if he married the princess, she would certainly educate him. For marrying her, he had to participate in a debate with the princess. During the debate, he should not speak, and should respond to any question through gestures only. The Acharya will take care of the rest. After initial disbelief, the person agreed to Acharya’s proposal.

The Acharya presented the new aspirant to the princess for debate, on condition that the debate would be through gestures only. His pretext was that the candidate was observing silence and could not speak that day. The princess initiated the debate by raising her index finger. In response, the candidate pointed his two fingers at her. The Acharya interpreted their gestures. One finger indicated that there was only one supreme God, whereas two fingers signified that there were two supreme powers comprising one the God and other the Soul. Vidyottama was impressed.

Next, she showed him her palm with five spread fingers. In response, the aspirant showed her his fist.  The Acharya explained that the five fingers indicated the five senses whereas the fist indicated the importance of control over five senses. Vidyottama accepted the candidate’s reasoning and married him.

In the night, when they met again, the princess asked her husband: Asti Kashchit Vagvisheshah? Is there anything specifically intelligent that you can say? Her husband did not understand. He then told her truthfully his interpretation of the debate that took place earlier between them.

About gestures, he thought that she was threatening to poke his eye with one finger and so he responded to poke her both eyes by showing her two fingers. Regarding the show of palm with five spread fingers, he assumed that she was threatening to slap him. In response, he threatened to hit her with his fist. The princess realised that she had been cheated. In rage, she immediately expelled him from her palace.

Feeling hopeless and dejected, after wandering in the woods, the expelled husband entered into a pond to end his life by drowning. At that moment, he saw some people who had come to the pond to wash a goat for sacrifice to goddess Kali. He asked them to offer him to goddess as sacrifice instead of the goat. They refused, but he accompanied them to the Kali temple and prayed to the goddess. At the temple, he came in contact with educated people and scholars who took him under their guidance. He studied under their tutelage for several years and eventually started writing poems and plays in Sanskrit. Being inspired by his devotion to goddess Kali, he became known as Kalidas. It is believed that he was a Shaivite, a follower of Shiva worship tradition.

He composed three great books with each of the words of Vidyottama’s question asked during their first meeting after marriage. From “asti” = asti-uttarasyaam dishi, he produced the epic “Kumarasambhavam”; from “Kashchit” = kashchit-kaantaa, he wrote the poem “Meghadutam” and from “Vagvisheshah”= vaagarthaaviva, he wrote the epic “Raghuvamsam”.

His creations were well received and he was recommended to present himself to king Vikramaditya. He travelled to Ujjain where king Vikramaditya appointed him a court poet. By this time, his name and fame had spread all over India. Princess Vidyottama learnt about him and repented her rude behaviour towards him. She also travelled to Ujjain and reconciled with her husband Kalidas and assisted him in his future career.

There is no direct reference to his own life and time in his books. Nature and scriptures such as the Mahabharat, the Ramayan and Purans are the major sources of ideas for his compositions, which appear to be relevant to all ages and to many places and regions of India. In the absence of any specific information about his life, scholars from various parts of India claim that he originated from their region.

Subsequent poets, writers and scholars have referred to Kalidas’ name and works. Their commentaries have been used to establish facts about his life and time. Many versions of tales are popular about him, including his marriage with Vidyottama.

It is believed that he was brought up in childhood by foster parents. He was not interested in his studies during childhood but played musical instruments skilfully. He was evicted from his foster parents’ house and ended up in Kashi, where he survived by selling firewood. A girl from his village accompanied Kalidas after his expulsion from the village. She is recognised as the source of inspiration for Shringar Ras in his books.

Kumardas, a friend of Kalidas in Sri Lanka, invited him to read his plays to local audiences. While reading the play Shakuntalam, an assassin attacked and killed him.  

The dates of Kalidas have not been established conclusively, and range from second century BC to fifth century AD.  Referring to his play Malavikagnimitram, in which king Agnimitra of Shung dynasty was a major character, some scholars claim that he lived in the second century BC.

Analysing the use of word Vikram in his works, other scholars believe that Kalidas was a poet in the court of king Vikramaditya during the first century BC.

Those who assume Vikramaditya of first century BC a mythological personality, assert Kalidas’s time during the reign of Chandragupta Second, who had assumed the title of Vikramaditya during the fourth-fifth century AD.

Kalidas wrote three plays titled Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramovarshiyam; two epic poems Kumarasambhavam and Raghuvamsam; and two lyrical poems Meghadutam and Ritusamharanam.

The plot of Abhigyan Shakuntalam, The Recognition of Shakuntala, is based on the story in the Mahabharat. Shakuntala was an adopted daughter of sage Kanva who lived in a forest Ashram. During a hunting trip, King Dushyant arrived at the Ashram in search of water to quench his thirst. He saw Shakuntala at the Ashram and fell in love with her. Sage Kanva was away from the Ashram.  In his absence, they married according to the rituals of Gandharva Vivah, love marriage. The king presented Shakuntala with a ring and left to attend to an urgent task. Before leaving, he promised to come back to take her to his capital.

When Kanva returned, he learned by his Yogic power about the events in the Ashram. Shakuntala was pregnant and the king did not return to take her. The sage sent Shakuntala, accompanied with his disciples and a matron, to the king. The king failed to recognise and accept her as his wife.  Shakuntala left the palace, and went to a forest, where she gave birth to a baby boy named Sarvadaman.

One day a fisherman caught a fish and found a ring in it. It was the same ring, which the king had given to Shakuntala. She had lost it while crossing a river, during her journey from the Ashram to the palace. The fisherman came to the king to sell the valuable ring, marked with a royal symbol. Seeing the ring triggered the king’s memories of his wedding to Shakuntala and he started a search for her.

During a trip to the forest, the king saw a boy playing with lion cubs. On further investigation it was revealed that the boy’s mother was Shakuntala. The king located her, and brought her and the boy to his capital. The boy was his son who was later named Bharat. He was a great ruler and the land of his kingdom was named Bharatvarsh, India.

Sir William Jones, an English judge in the court of East India Company, translated Abhigyan Shakuntalam into English, which was first published in Kolkata and then in Europe in 1790. Its German translation appeared in 1791 and French in 1803. The play was well received by European scholars, who started acknowledging the achievements of ancient Indian civilisation in literature and culture.

The play Malavikagnimitram, Malavika and Agnimitra, is about palace intrigues. Agnimitra, a major character in the play, is a historical personality, who ruled Magadh between 149BC and 141BC. In the play, Malavika was a handmaiden of the chief queen of king Agnimitra. She was very beautiful and attracted the attention of Agnimitra. The queen felt their attraction and imprisoned Malavika on some pretext. Later, it was revealed that Malavika was from a royal family and was released from imprisonment. She subsequently wed the king.

The play Vikramovarshiyam, Vikram and Urvashi, is based on an ancient legend of king Pururava and nymph Uravashi. The myth originated in hymns in the Rig-Ved and has been amplified in subsequent scriptures.

The epic poem Kumarasambhavam, The Birth of Kumar, narrates the story of Kumar, also known as Skand and Kartikey, the son of Shiva and Parvati. It describes the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the birth of Kumar, and the battle of Kumar with the demon Tarakasur, who had defeated deities and usurped their power. Kumar finally defeated Tarakasur, and deities were restored to their positions. Stories of the deities’ plan to incite Kama, the love god, to arouse love in the heart of Shiva towards Parvati, and destruction of Kama by Shiva are elaborately described in the poem.

The epic poem Raghuvamsham, The Dynasty of Raghu, describes major events in the life of kings of Raghu dynasty, to which Maryada Purushotam Ram belongs.  Four generations before Ram described in detail include Dilip, Raghu, AJ and Dasarath. The story of Ram consistent with the text in the Valmiki Ramayan is also included. After Ram, his son Kush returned to Ayodhya from Kushawati, a city allotted to him, and continued the tradition of Raghu dynasty by ruling the kingdom from Ayodhya. The poem also mentions over twenty subsequent kings after Kush. The last king in the epic died without a child and his pregnant queen was installed at the throne with an expectation that the newborn baby would continue the lineage.

The Poem Meghadutam, The Cloud Messenger, provides physical description of many regions of India and the emotions of an officer posted on duty to a distant land. A Yaksh, attendant of Kuber, the lord of wealth who lived in the city of Alaka on a mountain in the Himalaya, was posted to a mountainous region in Central India. He remembered his wife and wished to send her a message. He noticed clouds in the sky, as the rainy season was to start, and requested it to convey his communication to his wife, on its northward course. The Yaksh described many captivating sights that the cloud would see on its way to the city of Alaka, where his wife resided alone.

The poem Ritusamharanam, The Gathering of the Seasons, offers vigorous depictions of nature in all the six seasons encountered in India. The poem describes natural beauty in each season, and emotions arising in the hearts of women living away from their husbands during those periods.

Kalidas’ works are full of Shringar Ras that includes flirtation, playfulness, dalliance, adornment, artistry and other activities and feelings. His plays, especially Abhigyan Shakuntalam, remain popular and are staged in theatres and during cultural functions throughout India and other countries. Kalidas’s books are translated in many languages, and are an inspiring account of the private lives and cultural traditions of ancient times.

Goswami Tulasidas

Author –  Awadhesh Sharma

Shree Ramcharitmanas, the retelling of the Valmiki Ramayan in Awadhi language, is a highly revered Hindu scripture. Traditional Hindu families in northern India, and those originating from there, normally keep a copy of it in their homes, as a sacred object. Goswami Tulasidas composed Ramcharitmanas in poems in the language of the common people. It made the story of Ram available to the general public in an easy to memorise and recite format. Awadhi was the language of Ayodhya region during Tulasidas’ time and is considered a precursor of modern Hindi and other north Indian languages.

Little facts about events of Tulasidas’ life are available in his works. Ancient sources describing his life’s events are books entitled Bhaktamal composed by Nabhadas, Bhakti-Rasbodhini by Priyadas, Mul-Gosain-Charit by Veni Madhav, Gosain-Charit by Bhavanidas and Gautam-Chandrika by Krishna Datta Mishra. Nabhadas and Veni Madhav were contemporaries of Tulasidas, and Krishna Datta’s father was his close companion. Books by Priyadas and Bhavanidas were written almost a century after Tulasidas’ death. The modern biography of Tulasidas is derived from his own works and from details specified in the above-listed books.

Tulasidas was born in a village named Rajapur in the Chitrakoot district of modern Uttar Pradesh, on the seventh day of the bright fortnight in the month of Shravan of Vikram Samvat VS1554 (July-August 1497AD). He was born after a twelve-month gestation period in his mother’s womb. His father’s name was Atmaram and mother was Hulasi Devi. At birth he uttered the word Ram. He looked like a five years old boy at birth and had all his adult thirty-two teeth grown. According to the astrological calculation, he was born during an inauspicious constellation of stars. Local astrologers asserted the newborn baby was dangerous to his parents and close relatives. Fearing for the safety of her child, and bad omens, the mother Hulasi gave the baby to her helper Chunia and sent her to her village. The next day Hulasi passed away.

Chunia Devi took care of the baby despite disapproval from family members, relatives and friends. When the child was five and half years old, Chunia passed away and the boy became an orphan. Now the boy had to fend for himself. He survived on the kindness of others. It is believed that during this time, goddess Parvati used to feed him in the disguise of a devout woman. The boy had an innate attraction to lord Ram and he used to chant his name regularly.

A saint named Naraharidas of Ramanandi Vaishnav sect during his travel noticed the boy on the streets and recognised his traits. The saint asked the boy to accompany him to his Ashram, where he would be taken care of food, accommodation and education. The boy agreed and went with him. Naraharidas named the boy Rambola after learning about his past.

At the Ashram, the saint performed Rombola’s thread ceremony and other relevant rites and then initiated him into the Ramanandi Vaishnav sect. Rambola started studies at his Ashram in Ayodhya at the age of seven years. He had a sharp mind and could commit to memory whatever he heard from his teachers’ mouth even once.  At the Ashram, Rambola was assigned to water and take care of Tulasi, the basil plants, which are considered especially sacred to Vaishnav sect. Being a carer of Tulasi plants, Rambola became known as Tulasidas, an aide of Tulasi.

Tulasidas followed his teacher Naraharidas to the Soron Sookar region, where a popular temple dedicated to Varah incarnation of lord Vishnu was located. There he listened to the stories from the Ramayan, delivered by his teacher. After spending some time in Soron, Tulasidas went to Kashi for further studies. In Kashi, he stayed with Shesh Sanatanji, a friend of Naraharidas and a renowned scholar on literature and philosophy. He studied Vedic texts including the Vedas, Vedangas, Jyotish and Hindu Philosophies, for around fifteen years. Towards the end of this period, Tulasidas had become known amongst educated communities for his expertise in telling spiritual tales.

With permission from his teacher, Tulasidas returned to his village and found none of his family members or close relatives alive. He performed sacred rites for departed family members and commenced regular religious discourses in the village. His sermons were well liked by the local public. A father looking for a groom for his daughter attended the lecture and was mesmerised by his charm and scholarship.  The father offered him to marry his daughter Ratnavali. Tulasidas agreed and the wedding was solemnised in VS1583. They lived happily in the village. Tulasidas was very fond of his wife and was unwilling to be apart from her.

One day when Tulasidas had left the house for some work, Ratnavali went with her brother to their parents’ house. Her sick father was keen to see his daughter, as she had not visited him since a long time. When Tulasidas returned home and could not find her, he immediately started for his in-laws’ house. It was raining heavily and rivers were flooded. He crossed the river over a floating corpse. After walking a long distance during the night he arrived at his destination.

He entered the house through a window, which he reached by climbing a dangling snake, assuming it to be a rope.  When Ratnavali and his in-laws learnt of his adventure, they were shocked. Ratnavali was especially upset and ashamed of his conduct. She rebuked him and said, ‘you are too attracted to my body made of bones and flesh. If you had even half of that attraction to God, your life would have been redeemed.’  Tulasidas was made speechless by the remark and left her immediately. He went to Prayagraj and renounced his Grihastha, householder stage of life. He became a Sadhu, holy man.

He travelled to many sacred places across India and the Lake Manasarovar in Tibet, and finally arrived at Kashi. In Kashi, he used to sit under a tree and chant the name of Ram. He also used to water the tree with the water from River Ganga. It is believed that the spirit of the tree became pleased with his chanting of word Ram and offering of Ganga water. The spirit requested Tulasidas to ask for a boon to repay his services. Tulasidas asked the spirit to arrange a meeting with Ram. The tree spirit expressed its inability to do so, but explained him how he could locate Hanuman who would help him meet Ram.

Tulasidas located Hanuman, who regularly used to listen to discourses on Ram. Hanuman, in human form, was the first to arrive at the discourse venue and the last to depart. Hanuman provided details to Tulasidas of how he could meet Ram at Chitrakoot.  Tulasidas went to Chitrakoot, and there he saw both Ram and Lakshaman riding horses near him but could not recognise them. Next day, when Tulasidas was grinding sandalwood paste at the bank of a river, Ram and Lakshaman came to him and applied the paste on their own and Tulasidas’ forehead. Hanuman, in the form of a parrot, sang signalling their presence. Tulasidas recognised the two princes, and became fully absorbed in devotion to Ram.

Tulasidas left Chitrakoot for Ayodhya in VS1628. On the way, he stopped at Prayagraj during the Kumbhmela, in the month of Magh. While there, he met sages Yagyavalkya and Bharadwaj under a sacred banyan tree. Yagyavalkya was narrating the same story to Bharadwaj that Tulasidas had heard from his teacher Naraharidas in Soron.

Tulasidas then went to Kashi and stayed at Prahaladghat. He intuited his ability to compose poems and started writing poems in Sanskrit. However, whatever he wrote during the day was lost in the night and this happened on a daily basis for several days. On the eighth day, he saw in a dream lord Shiva, who instructed him to compose the poems in his own language, the language of the general masses and promised him that his compositions would fructify like the Samved. Shiva also instructed him to go to Ayodhya and write his works there. Tulasidas following their advice moved to Ayodhya.

Tulasidas started writing the Ramcharitmanas in Ayodhya in VS1631 on the Ramnavami day. He completed the epic over two years, seven months and twenty-six days in VS1633.

Tulasidas came to Kashi and recited the Ramcharitmanas at the Vishwanath Temple. After complete recital, the book was left in the temple during the night and doors were locked. In the morning when the doors were opened, the words “Satyam Shivam Sundaram” that is truth, auspiciousness and beauty, as well as a symbol of trident as a signature of Shiva, were found inscribed on the cover of the book. This was witness by people present there.

Conceited academics of Kashi became jealous of Tulasidas and attempted to destroy the Ramcharitmanas. They sent two thieves to steal the manuscript. The thieves tried to break into Tulasidas’ Ashram, but were confronted by two guards of dark and fair complexions, both armed with bows and arrows. The thieves had a change of heart, and came to Tulasidas in the morning to ask about the identity of the two guards. Believing that they could be none other than Ram and Lakshman, Tulasidas was aggrieved to know that they were troubled to guard his home at night. He sent the manuscript of Ramcharitmanas to a friend and donated all his money to charity.  The thieves were reformed and became devotees of Ram. Tulasidas wrote another copy of the Ramcharitmanas, which was copied and circulated as its popularity spread.

 Critics were still not satisfied. They demanded to test the status of the Ramcharitmanas among other scriptures. A manuscript of the Ramcharitmanas was kept at the bottom of the pile of Sanskrit scriptures in the Vishvanath Temple in the night, and the doors of the temple were locked. In the morning, when the doors were opened, the Ramcharitmanas was found located at the top of the pile. Now critics were ashamed of their acts and apologised for their behaviour.

Since then the popularity of the Ramcharitmanas has remarkably grown. The complete text of the book is inscribed on the walls of Tulasi Manas Mandir in Varanasi. Ramlila, a show presenting episodes of Ram’s life based on the Ramcharitmanas, is staged throughout north India. Stories based on the Ramcharitmanas have been produced in numerous films and television serials.

In addition to Ramcharitmanas, Tulasidas wrote many other books including major works such as Kavitavali, Dohavali, Gitavali, Krishnavali and Vinay-Patrika. Janaki Mangal, Parvati Mangal, Barvai Ramayan, Ramlala Nahachhu, Ramagya Prashna, Tulasi Satsai and Vairagya Sandipani are his other compositions. Hanuman Chalisa, Hanumanastak and Hanuman Bahuka, all prayers to Hanuman, are also credited to him. His compositions continue to have mass appeal and it is not uncommon for an illiterate person in India to recite verses from his works.

Tulasidas spent most of his later life in Kashi on the banks of River Ganga at Assi Ghat. He died there at the age 125 years in the month of Shravan (July–August) VS1680 (1623AD).

It is believed that he performed many miracles. According to one, a widow was following her dead husband procession to the cremation ground. Tulasidas was passing by near the procession. The widow noticed his saintly appearance and offered her veneration to him. Tulasidas blessed her to be “Saubhagyavati” which means to be loved by her husband. People were surprised to hear his words, as her husband was dead. Tulasidas and other people following him started chanting the name of Ram near the corpse. Soon after, the dead man came back to life.

Tulasidas established the Sankatmochan temple dedicated to Hanuman in Varanasi. He belonged to Vaishnav sect but he always preached and worked for unity among various denominations of Hinduism. Similarly, he supported the devotion to Sagun and Nirgun Brahma, God with and without attributes.

Tulasidas is addressed by many honorific titles including Goswami, the master of senses, Sant or saint and Bhaktashiromani or crest among devotees. He has been described as an incarnation of sage Valmiki who composed the original Ramayan in Sanskrit. His works continue to inspire generations of humanity and motivate to follow the ideals of Maryada Purushotam Ram, the main characters of the Ramcharitmanas.

Bhishma – The Son of Ganga

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

King Shantanu of Kuru dynasty was on a hunting expedition in the forest along the River Ganga. On the way he noticed a woman coming from the direction of the river. She was of a flawless beauty resembling an Apsara or nymph. The king was mesmerised by her charm.  The lady also saw the king and was attracted to him. As she came closer, the king introduced himself and praised her celestial beauty and elegance. She was pleased with his compliments and listened to his speech eagerly. Encouraged by her receptive manners, the king asked her to become his wife.

The lady thought for a moment and then spoke to him. She consented to become his queen provided the king met certain conditions during their life together. The condition stipulated that the king would not stop or scold her for her actions, whether for good or ill. She would remain with him as long as he followed these terms. If she was stopped or scolded, she would leave him immediately.  Shantanu assented. The king brought her to his capital Hastinapur, the city of elephants, and there they solemnised their marriage.

Shantanu fathered eight sons with his wife. As each of the first seven children was born, she cast them into the stream. The king mourned but said nothing for fear of loosing her altogether. When the eighth child was born, she seemed full of mirth and departed to drown the newborn baby. The grieving king lost patience. He followed and said to her, “Do not kill him! Who are you? Why do you harm your sons? Stay, wicked child killer; do not incur this dreadful sin!”

She responded stating that she would not kill their last son, but she could not live with him any longer, in accordance with the terms of the agreement they made before their union. She further indicated that she was the celestial river Ganga in human form. Their eight sons were the Vasus, deities of wealth. Sage Vasishtha had cursed them for their transgression to be born in human form. Vasus had approached her for redemption. She had promised to give them birth as human and free them from the curse as soon as they were born, except for the eighth Vasu. Her eighth son would have a long life.

Promising to return their eighth son to the king later, Ganga disappeared taking the child with her.  She named her son Devavrat and took him to different realms. Devavrat was brought up and trained by eminent sages and scholars. Brihaspati the teacher of deities and Sukracharya the teacher of demons taught him political science and other branches of knowledge. Parashuram trained him in warfare. Indra bestowed celestial weapons on him.  Sages Vasishtha, Chyavan, Sanatkumar and Markandey also taught him spiritual disciplines.

Years later, Shantanu was roaming on the banks of the Ganga reminiscing his past. He observed the flow of the river had become shallow. Walking upstream he noticed a youth who was blocking the water flow with a dam made up of arrows. When the king tried to speak to him, he vanished from the scene. Shantanu intuited that his surviving son would have looked like him by now. He addressed Ganga and asked for his son. Ganga appeared before him with their son Devavrat and presented him to the king. Shantanu returned home with his son and installed him as prince. Devavrat delighted the subjects with his valour and conduct and helped his father in royal responsibilities. 

One day Shantanu visited a forest near river Yamuna. He smelt a wonderful fragrance. He searched for its source and traced it to a lovely girl. On enquiry, she told him that she was the daughter of a fisherman and her name was Satyavati. She ferried people across the river as instructed by her father.

The king was so impressed by her fragrance and beauty that he wanted to marry her. He went to her father to ask for her hand. The fisherman consented on a condition that her son should be consecrated as king after him.  The king could not accept this condition. Devavrat was already appointed the prince and was on track to be the next king. The king returned home disappointed and felt disheartened. Devavrat noticed his condition and learned from a reliable elder the reason for his father’s state of mind.

He went to the fisherman and asked for his daughter as wife for his father. The fisherman repeated his condition. Devavrat declared that he renounced his claim to the kingship to satisfy the condition. To allay any chance of claim to the throne from his children, he further vowed to remain celibate, and never marry throughout his life.

Hearing his vows, celestial deities and sages showered flowers on him from the sky and said, “He is Bhishma” referring to his terrible vow. He became known as Bhishma.

Bhishma brought Satyavati to Hastinapur and presented her to his father. When Shantanu learnt about his vow, he felt obliged and offered him a boon that would allow him to die at time of his choosing. To dispel any danger to the kingdom in the future, Bhishma vowed to protect the kingdom and remain loyal to the throne of Hastinapur.

Shantanu wedded Satyavati. The couple had two sons named Chitrangad and Vichitravirya. After Shantanu’s death Bhishma installed Chitrangad as king. Chitrangad died in a battle with a Gandharva. Bhishma then installed Vichitravirya who was still a child, and acted under Bhishma’s instructions.

When Vichitravirya attained a marriageable age, Bhishma attended the Swayamvar that the king of Kashi had arranged for his three daughters, named Amba, Ambika and Ambalika. He announced his presence, as he was not invited, and abducted all the three girls for his half-brother Vichitravirya. He overcame resistance from king Salva and other potential suitors, and brought the girls home.

Ambika and Ambalika wedded Vichitravirya but Amba refused stating that she loved Salva and had chosen him as her husband. She was allowed to return to her lover but Salva refused to accept her. She returned to Bhishma and asked him to marry her. Bhishma could not marry due to his vow. Amba held Bhishma responsible for her predicament, and planned her revenge. She approached Parashuram for help, who unsuccessfully advised Bhishma to accept Amba as his wife. Then they fought for many days, and finally Bhishma defeated Parashuram. Later Amba prayed to Shiva, who granted her a boon to be able to be an accomplice in Bhishma’s death.

Vichitravirya died of consumption without producing an heir. On Bhishma’s suggestion, Satyavati summoned her son Vyas Dvaipayan. Sage Parasar had begotten Vyas on Satyavati before her marriage to Shantanu. Through the system of Niyoga with Vyas, Ambika gave birth to Dhritrastra and Ambalika to Pandu. Bhishma managed the kingdom until they grew to adulthood.

Pandu was installed as king since the elder brother Dhritrastra was blind from birth. Bhishma arranged their marriage. Dhritrastra married Gandhari and Pandu married Kunti and Madri. Hundred sons were born to Gandhari. They were called Kauravas. Duryodhan the eldest was their leader. Pandu had five sons, called Pandavas. Yudhisthir was the eldest who later became king. Pandu died due to a curse when his sons were still children. In his absence, Dhritrastra was invested with the throne under protection of Bhishma.

Bhishma engaged Guru Dronacharya as a teacher to educate all the princes. From early childhood Duryodhan displayed animosity towards Pandavas. His attitude was dangerous for harmony in the family.

Bhishma often counselled Duryodhan but he would not listen to him. King Dhritrastra was unable to take any action against his son. Bhishma also despised Karna whom he believed to be one of the main advisors of Duryodhan.

Bhishma became aware of the incident of Lakshagrih, the House of Lac only after Pandavas had escaped and returned home after marrying Draupadi. Duryodhan had conspired to burn Pandavas with their mother Kunti alive in the Lakshagrih.

Pandavas revered Bhishma highly. On his advice Yudhisthir designated Krishna as the chief guest of honour during his consecration as king of Indraprasth.

During disrobing of Draupadi at the game of dice, Bhishma remained a silent witness. He fought against Arjun, from the side of Kauravas during their confrontation with the army of Matsya king Virat.

When Pandavas returned from exile, Bhishma tried to convince Dhritrastra to return their share of the kingdom but could not prevail over Duryodhan’s contention.

During the peace mission of Krishna, Bhishma supported his proposal and witnessed his cosmic expansion in the assembly hall.

In the Mahabharat war, he accepted the role of commander in chief of the Kauravas army on the condition that he would not kill any of the Pandava brothers. Also, he barred Karna from joining the fight during his leadership of the army.  He set up specific rules of the war that both parties accepted.

Bhishma fought for ten days. During the war he killed innumerable warriors. He even forced Krishna to break his vow of not taking a weapon to use in the war. On Yudhisthir’s request, Bhishma told him the tactics of how he could be killed.

On the tenth day, Shikhandi, the reincarnated Amba as male, attacked him. Bhishma considered Shikhandi a woman due to his previous birth, and as such, declined to engage in combat with him. From behind Shikhandi, Arjun pierced his body with arrows, felling him from his chariot. He remained suspended on the arrows, which were embedded all over his body except the head. This was the end of his fighting in the war.

Both Kaurava and Pandava chiefs visited him on his makeshift deathbed to offer respects. Bhishma asked for a support for his head. Duryodhan brought pillows, which he declined to accept. Arjun hit arrows below his head that made a fitting head-support for him. He further asked for water. Arjun pierced the earth with an arrow. Fresh water sprang out from the earth and poured in his mouth.

Karna also came to pay his respect and obtained blessings from him.

Bhishma did not die during the war thanks to the boon from his father that enabled him to choose his own time of death. Pandavas won the war. However, Yudhisthir remained grieving over the immense loss of life and utter destruction in the war.

Krishna knew that Bhishma was the storehouse of knowledge. He brought Yudhisthir to Bhishma who lay suspended on the bed of arrows. Krishna praised him for his knowledge and virtues and freed him from pain by touching his body. Bhishma informed them that he would relinquish his body in auspicious Uttarayan when the sun moved to the northern direction

Krishna requested him to dispel Yudhisthir’s grief. Bhishma agreed and gave a long sermon that continued for many days. He explained the nature of Dharma, duties of kings, duties of people in their different stages and classes, and answered queries from Yudhisthir on many spiritual, political and social issues.

Bhishma declared that Krishna was an incarnation of the supreme god Vishnu. He enumerated thousand names of Vishnu, known as Vishnu Sahastranam.

After the sermon, Yudhisthir’s grief was dispelled and he took up the kingship. When the time of Bhishma’s departure arrived, Yudhisthir came to see him. He noticed Bhishma surrounded by celestial sages. Bhishma greeted him and confirmed that his time of death was now and took leave of all.

Bhishma brought his breath under yogic control and released it through the top of his head.  His life breath flew in the sky like a shining star. Pandavas cremated his body on the banks of River Ganga. Bhishma’s mother Ganga came to the site of cremation, lamenting. Krishna reminded her of the reason of her son’s birth and assured her that he had attained his position in heaven.

His death anniversary is commemorated as Bhishma Ashtami, on the eighth day of bright fortnight in the month of Magh (January-February).

Bhishma is the eldest character of the epic Mahabharat. He was a grandfather of both Kauravas and Pandavas.

In the epic, Bhishma Parva describes in detail his exploits in the war, and Shanti and Anushasan Parvas contain his discourses on various disciplines.

Princess Savitri

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

The earliest source referring to Savitri and her accomplishments is found in the Van Parva, Forest Book, of the Mahabharat.   Pandavas were spending their twelve-year exile in the forests. Various sages visited Pandavas during this period and narrated motivating stories to soothe their feelings over their misfortune.

Once sage Markandey visited Pandavas after Draupadi was freed from king Jayadrath who had abducted her during their absence.  Yudhishthir recounted the tale of their tribulations and told him about the incidence of Draupadi’s abduction. Markandey narrated the story of Ram who was exiled for fourteen years. His wife Sita was abducted in the forest. Ram recovered her, returned home and eventually became a king. Ram had only one brother with him in the forest. His conditions were harsher than that of Pandavas.

Yudhishthir noted that he was not grieving for himself or brothers but for Draupadi who was subjected to unforgiving treatments. Subsequently Markandey narrated the story of princess Savitri who endured challenging tasks and situations. She overcame them and attained all the greatness that wellborn women might aspire to.

There was a king named Ashvapati who ruled over Madra, an ancient kingdom in India. He was merciful, truthful and devoted to the wellbeing of all creatures in his kingdom. He was childless and longed for progeny to fulfil his obligations to his ancestors as per tradition. He performed severe penance and offered oblations with recitation of Savitri Mantra, also known as Gayatri Mantra, to acquire his progeny. After a long period of penance, goddess Savitri became pleased with his devotion and appeared before the king in person.

Goddess Savitri is the daughter of the solar deity Savitur. She and Gayatri are identified as consorts of Brahma. The goddess offered the king to ask for a boon.  The king requested her to bless him with offspring. The goddess conceded that the king would soon have a magnificent daughter and promised that his wish would be fulfilled.

Soon the queen Malava, wife of Ashvapati, became pregnant and in due course delivered a baby girl. As the baby was born as a result of the boon from goddess Savitri, the king named the baby, Savitri. Savitri grew up with time and attained a resplendent form with all the splendours of an intelligent princess.

When Savitri reached a marriageable age, despite her extraordinary beauty and attributes, there were no proposals for marriage from suitable candidates. Suitable princes were shy of her beauty and accomplishments, and did not dare to approach her or her parents to ask for her hand. Savitri’s parents became worried about her future.

One day Savitri came to the king’s court to pay him respect. After traditional civilities, the king introduced the issue of her marriage. Savitri opted to select her husband herself, following the system of Svayamvar, a recognised process for a woman to choose her husband.  The king consented to her choice and arranged for her travel to various regions to select a suitable spouse. Savitri supported by priests and assistants left in search of her potential partner.

Sometime later, when the roaming sage Narad was with the king Ashvapati, Savitri returned home after completion of her mission and presented herself to the king. Looking at the princess, Narad enquired about the actions being taken to arrange her matrimonial relationship. Ashvapati spoke to him about her trip and asked Savitri to describe the progress of her journey in detail.

 Savitri told them that she had found a proper person for marriage. His name was Satyavan, and he lived in a forest with his parents. His father Dyumatsen was a king of Shalva kingdom. When Satyavan was still a child, his father lost his sight. A bordering king, former enemy of Dyumatsen, attacked the blind king and seized power from him. Dyumatsen along with his wife and infant son took shelter in the forest, where they practiced austerity. Now Satyavan, born in a palace and raised in a forest hermitage, was available for marriage. 

Hearing her account, Narad became apprehensive.  The king asked Narad about the reason for his anxiety. Narad said that Savitri had unknowingly erred. The king suspected that Satyavan might lack attributes necessary to be a partner of Savitri. He requested Narad to elaborate further. Narad described Satyavan’s attributes, which were highly noble. He said, “Satyavan has the ardour of the sun. He is Brihaspati’s equal in intelligence. He is as brave as Indra and as forbearing as the earth.” Narad also listed other qualities that Satyavan possessed. Then the king asked Narad about Satyavan’s weaknesses.  Narad said that his one and only weakness that undermined his strength was his short life. Satyavan would die in one year from now.

The king was alarmed and along with Narad asked Savitri to reconsider and nominate another person for groom. Savitri refused to change her decision. Finally the king conceded and gave her his blessing to marry Satyavan. To formalise the relationship, the king visited Dyumatsen in his forest hermitage and confirmed Savitri’s wedding with Satyavan. The wedding of Savitri and Satyavan was solemnised in the forest with royal rituals.

Ashvapati offered gifts to his daughter appropriate to his position.  After the wedding, Savitri began living with her husband and in-laws in their forest hermitage. She discarded her royal jewelleries and dresses, and embraced plain and rough clothes. She performed her duties diligently. Despite being busy with chores of family responsibilities, she remained always conscious of Narad’s prediction about her husband’s death.

As time passed and the expected date for her husband’s death remained only three days away, Savitri requested permission from Satyavan and in-laws to fast, chant prayers and observe mental and physical purity. They agreed. She took vows to perform her penance for the welfare of her husband and observed fast for three days.

When three day fasting was over, her husband and in-laws insisted that she should ingest fluids and food. She declined to break her fast and convinced them that she would eat and drink after sunset that day. This was the predicted day of Satyavan’s death and this impending event tormented her.

In the morning, Satyavan started for the forest to collect eatable roots and fruits and firewood for the family. Savitri was worried about him and did not wish to leave him alone. She followed him into the forest. In the forest, Satyavan collected eatables and then started splitting wood near a Banyan tree for fuel. Suddenly he felt extreme pain in his chest and fell to the ground unconscious. Savitri went to him and started massaging him to soothe his pain.

As she was helping Satyavan, Savitri noticed a terrifying person with red eyes and noose in hand coming towards her husband. She asked him to identify himself, as his form was not of a common human being. He responded in a human voice that he did not normally talk to creatures, but had made an exception in her case due to her moral purity. He introduced himself as Yamaraj, the lord of death, and told her that he had come to take away Satyavan’s life. Normally his assistants performed this task but as Satyavan was righteous, handsome and virtuous, Yamaraj himself had come. Yamaraj tied Satyavan’s life in the noose and started toward the direction of his realm. Savitri followed him.

Yamaraj noticed her behind him. He asked her to return to her husband and perform his funeral rites. Savitri responded by stating that it was her Dharma to follow her husband. As Yamaraj was taking away her husband’s life, she needed to follow him. Yamaraj became very pleased with her intention and told her to request a boon, other than the return of her husband’s life. Savitri requested that her father-in-law regain his eyesight and become as mighty as the blazing sun.

Yamaraj accepted her request and advised her to turn back as she was already very tired. Savitri responded that she could not be tired when she was near her husband. She said, “It is known that even a single meeting with a virtuous person is greatly desired, but she was blessed with friendship and marriage with such a person.”

Yamaraj said, “Your speech pleases my heart and enhances the wisdom of wise. Choose a second boon, other than the life of Satyavan.” Savitri asked that her father-in-law regain his lost kingdom and never stray from Dharma.

Yamaraj conceded to her request and asked her to turn back.  Savitri said, “All beings on earth are governed by you and your ordinances and it is by ordinance that you take them away. The eternal Dharma of the virtuous is to do no harm to any creature by deed, thought and word, and practice kindness and generosity. Mostly people follow this according to their capability, but it is only the virtuous people, who show compassion even to their enemies.”

Yamaraj said, “Your words are to my ears like water to a thirsty person. Choose a further boon, other than the life of Satyavan. Savitri answered, “My father has no son. May my father be blessed with sons to continue his patriarchal lineage.

Yamaraj granted her this request and asked her to return as she had now travelled far. Savitri replied that she was not far when she was close to her husband. She requested Yamaraj to listen and said, “You are a mighty son of Vivasvan. You are known on earth as Vaivasvat and Dharmaraj. People trust virtuous people even more than they trust themselves. Everyone desires the friendship of the virtuous.

Yamaraj said, “I have never heard such words as you have spoken. Choose a fourth boon, other than the life of your husband.” Savitri requested, “May numerous sons be born to Satyavan and myself.” Yamaraj bequeathed the requested boon and patiently asked her to return.

Savitri again lauded the importance of virtues and Dharma. Yamaraj felt obliged to grant her another boon of her choice. Savitri responded, “Please return life to Satyavan. To make your fourth boon true, my husband has to be alive.”  Yamaraj realised the import and approved her request and released Satyavan’s life from his noose. He said to Savitri, “Lady, you are delight of your family. I have released your husband. He will have a long life and you will have sons with him.”

Having secured her husband’s life, Savitri returned to where Satyavan had fallen on the ground. As she touched him, Satyavan regained consciousness. He opened his eyes as if he awoke from sleep. It was already late in the night and they hurried back to their hermitage. Dyumatsen and his wife were relieved after seeing their son and daughter-in-law safely returned.

Soon Dyumatsen regained his eyesight and his kingdom. King Ashvapati was blessed with sons. Satyavan and Savitri became parents of many sons. After his father, Satyavan ruled his kingdom for a long period.

Sage Markandey concluded the story by telling Yudhishthir that Savitri rescued herself, her parents, parents-in-law and her husband from calamity. In the same way Draupadi, like Savitri, is also a highborn woman renowned for her character, and she would save you all. The story demonstrates the importance of having patience, hope and caring attitude.

The story of Savitri has become a part of Hindu tradition and is celebrated as the Vat-Savitri festival.  Women perform rituals during this festival for the welfare and long life of their husband. They fast, worship Vat or Banyan tree and tie a sacred thread around it. They also listen to the story of Savitri. Venerating the banyan tree also exhibits the significance of plants and trees in our lives. The celebration continues over three days in the Vikram Samvat calendar month of Jyestha (May–June). Observance of this festival highlights the determination, courage, devotion and love for her family displayed by a woman.

Dhruv – The Firm Child Ascetic

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

In the Hindu marriage ceremony, the bride and the bridegroom look at or towards the direction of the Dhruv-tara, the polar star.  It is a part of the ritual that signifies constancy and sanctity of the union between the couple. It also reminds the pair of the firmness and devotion of the legendary prince Dhruv. He attained the region of Dhruv-tara with his dedication and austere penance, performed to achieve his objectives in the primeval era. The legend of Dhurv is described in detail in the Bhagavat Puran and in the Vishnu Puran.

It happened during the early period of Creation of the world. During the prolonged process of creation, Brahma cleft himself into two, a male and a female human. The male was called Svayambhu Manu, self manifested human, and the female was called Shatarupa, with hundred beautiful forms. Their progeny became the human race on the earth. Through their union, Manu and Shatarupa produced five children, three daughters and two sons. The three daughters were named Aakuti, Devahuti and Prasuti. They were wedded to sages Ruchi, Kardam and Daksh respectively who were produced earlier by Brahma through his mental command. Sons were named Priyavrat and Uttanapad.

Manu was the original sovereign king of the created world. He ruled his kingdon for a long period and after his retirement, the second son Uttanapad ascended the throne. The first born son Priyavrat was more interested in performing penance and meditation than in ruling a kingdom. He went to forest to pursue his objectives.

Uttanapad had two wives named Suniti and Suruchi. He had a son named Dhruv from his elder wife Suniti and another son called Uttam from the younger wife Suruchi. The king was very fond of his younger wife and spent most of his free time with her and their son Uttam, at her palace. Suniti and Dhruv felt neglected, despite being the first wife and elder son.

Once at the age of five years, Dhruv went to Suruchi’s palace, where he saw Uttam sitting on his father’s lap. Uttanapad was lovingly playing with him. Dhruv also desired to be loved by his father and rushed to him with open arms to embrace him and affectionately sat on his lap. Suruchi saw Dhruv sitting on the king’s lap. Out of jealously, she went to him and dragged Dhruv away from his father’s lap. She scolded him, telling the boy that he was not fortunate enough to sit on the king’s lap, as he was not born to her, the favourite wife of the king. If he wanted to be loved by the king, then he should pray God to be born as her son at least in the next life. Shocked by the treatment of his step-mother, Dhruv looked at his father hoping his father would say something in his favour. Unfortunately, the king remained silent and did not utter a word, or even glanced at Dhruv.

Distressed by the treatment of his father and step-mother, Dhruv ran back sobbing to his mother Suniti. On enquiry, Dhruv told Suniti what had happened to him in Suruchi’s palace. The mother consoled Dhruv and lamented, for seeing her son insulted by Suruchi and neglected by the king. Dhruv expected that his mother would convince his father to love him, however Suniti expressed her helplessness, as the king was under the sway of his second wife.   Dhruv asked his mother if there was anything he could do to secure his father’s affection. Suniti responded by suggesting that there was only one who could help him.  It was Lord Vishnu, the supreme personality of godhead. It was the same god about whom Suruchi had earlier told Dhruv to pray so he may be born as her son at least in the next life. By praying and meditating on Vishnu, Dhruv could achieve anything he wished. Dhruv decided to pray and meditate on Vishnu, to achieve his objectives.

Dhruv, the five year old boy, left the palace and the city of his father, to go to forest and pray and meditate on Vishnu to please him. Realising the difficult path chosen by Dhruv, Narad the travelling sage appeared before him. Placing his hand on Dhruv’s head as a mark of blessing, Narad sympathised with him, and praised him for his endevour to overcome the sorrow caused by step-mother’s insult and father’s neglect. Narad cautioned him about the difficulties associated with praying and meditating in a forest environment. These activities were difficult for even matured and resourceful people, let alone for a five year old boy.  He advised Dhruv to return home to his mother, and to pray and meditate when he was old enough to endure troubles arising from performing these activities. Dhruv had already made up his mind and was determined to proceed to the forest.

Sensing the strength of character on Dhruv’s face, Narad wished to help him. He described the attributes of Vishnu, his physical forms as mentioned in scriptures and taught him the Mul Mantra, “Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevay” to chant, with concentration of mind on the lotus-like feet of Vishnu. Dhruv prostrated himself before Narad, who blessed Dhruv and assured him that by chanting this Mantra, he would achieve his wishes.

Dhruv travelled to the sacred forest called Madhuvan and started his penance there. He gradually reduced his food intake from solid fruits to water and eventually only breathing air once every twelve days. Dhruv’s penance alarmed the deities in Heaven. Indra, the king of deities, felt threatened and afraid of potential loss of his position. He sent wild animals such as tigers and snakes, and evil sprits to frighten Dhruv, but he was so absorbed in chanting of  the Mul Mantra, with focus on Vishnu’s feet that he did not notice any wild animal or ghoul. He had withdrawn his senses from their objects, and concentrated his mind on his soul as an abode of Vishnu.

Standing on one leg, Dhruv continued his meditation on Vishnu. The earth tilted with the pressure of his one foot. It started shaking to maintain its balance. When Dhruv stopped breathing, all the deities could  not breathe. They went flying to Vishnu and asked him to coerce Dhruv to stop his penance. Vishnu explained to them that Dhruv was his great devotee and he had assimilated his mind with him. He promised the group that he would approach Dhruv and bless him with fulfilment of his objectives.

As promised to the deities, Vishnu came to Dhruv, who felt as if Vishnu has gone out of his heart. He opened his eyes and saw Vishnu standing before him in person, in a physical form as described by Narad. He prostrated himself before Vishnu like a stick, and stood up smiling with rapturous love. Vishnu noticed his lips moving but no sound came from them.  Vishnu touched his mouth with his conch Panchjanya which is an embodiment of the Vedas. Dhruv started his prayer which is now known as the Dhruv prayer.

Vishnu was delighted with his prayer. He spoke affectionately to Dhruv and suggested him to ask for anything that he wished. Dhruv told him that by sighting him, he had received everything and did not wish anything else.

However, Vishnu knew the reason why Dhruv had started his penance in the first place. Vishnu said, “you wanted to be loved by your father, be a king and inherit your father’s kingdom. All those wishes will be fulfilled and you will rule for thirty six thousand years on the Earth. Finally, when you will leave your body, you will come straight to me, and be free.

Also, I will give you an eternal place in the sky, higher than the place of the Saptarishi, seven sage stars. The sun and moon will revolve around you; the galaxy will orbit you. Even during Pralay, the cosmic dissolution, you will remain firm in your position. Now you go home. Your father is waiting for you.”

In the meantime, a few days after Dhruv departed for the forest, Narad went to Uttanapad and found him distraught and repenting for his son Dhruv, who had left him due to his mistreatment in the palace.  Narad consoled him and promised that one day your son will return home. Later, when Narad learnt about the success of Dhruv’s endeavour, he again came to Uttanapad  and informed him to make preparations to welcome Dhruv, who was on his way back to him.

Finally Dhruv returned to his father’s kingdom. The king along with his entourage and public welcomed him with a grand celebration. The step-mother was very ashamed of her action, but Dhruv especially thanked her for her action. He praised her for her admonition, which had led him to penance and finally meeting with Lord Vishnu.

When Dhruv grew to manhood, Uttanapad crowned him king and after sometime undertook Sanyas, the detachment from wordly affairs. Dhruv ruled his kingdom for the designated period and thereafter, attained the region of polar star now known as Dhruv-tara.

The actions of five year old Dhruv is an example of dedication to achieve one’s objective. Firm determination, intense labour and a focussed approach can resolve difficult issues in life. Sighting Dhruv-tara during the wedding ceremony reminds the couple to remain fixed with their promised commitment for successfully attaining their life objectives.