Karna – The Son of Surya

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Karna is one of the main characters of the epic the Mahabharat and has a divine origin.

Once sage Durvasa visited king Kuntibhoj seeking his hospitality. The king welcomed the sage and appointed his adopted daughter Kunti to look after him. Kunti took care of his needs and kept the sage pleased.

The sage was so impressed with her services that at the time of his departure, he offered Kunti a boon of her choice. She assured him that his good opinion was enough reward for her. However, the sage felt obliged and gave her a Mantra. He promised that it would be useful in her future and with its help she could summon any deity to do her bidding.

Kunti was curious about the authenticity of the Mantra. One day, she got up early in the morning and looked at the rising sun. She wished to test the veracity of the Mantra and chanted it to summon the deity of light Surya, the Sun. To her surprise, Surya appeared before her in person and asked her what she wanted. She said that she did not want anything and requested him to leave her alone. Surya refused to leave without giving her a son to maintain the sanctity of the Mantra.

As a result, a baby was born to Kunti wearing a golden Kawach, armour and Kundals, earrings. He later became illustrious Karna. Kunti was scared realising that delivering a baby before marriage would reduce her and her family’s social standing. She abandoned the child before anyone knew about him. She placed the child in a basket and set it afloat on a river.

A childless Suta, charioteer, named Adhirath noticed the floating basket with the baby and brought it home.  His wife Radha was overjoyed. They adopted the baby as their son and named him Vasushen, the one born with wealth of Kawach and Kundals.  He was also addressed as Sutaputra and Radheya.

Later, Kunti married prince Pandu of Hastinapur. Due to a curse, Pandu could not have children. He retired to the forest with his wives Kunti and Madri. Following a discussion with Pandu, using Durvasa’s Mantra, Kunti gave birth to Yudhisthir, Bhim and Arjun through deities Dharmaraj, Vayu, and Indra respectively. She also shared the Mantra with Madri, who became the mother of Nakul and Sahadeo through the deity Ashvinikumar. All five brothers were born in the forest and were known as Pandavas. Pandu died soon after their birth. Madri followed her husband and joined him on the funeral pyre.

Kunti brought the children to the capital Hastinapur where Pandu’s brother Dhritrastra was ruling the kingdom on his behalf. She placed the sons into the care of elders including grandfather Bhishma and wise Vidur. Dhritrastra had one hundred sons, commonly known as Kauravas. Duryodhan was the eldest. They did not like Pandavas and developed animosity toward them.

Karna often visited Hastinapur and observed the royal children’s enmity. He became a pupil of teacher Dronacharya who taught both Pandava and Kaurava princes. Dronacharya was partial towards Arjun and trained him to become the greatest archer. Karna was equally talented and wished to acquire all the skills of archery and other weapons. Dronacharya declined to teach him Brahmastra, the weapon of Brahma, noting that it was meant only for high-born candidates.

Karna left Dronacharya and went to Parashuram, a great teacher of martial art. He presented himself as a Brahmin youth keen to learn weaponry skills from him. Parashuram was impressed by Karna’s enthusiasm, and accepted him as his student. He taught him all the weapons including the Brahmastra.

One day Parashuram was resting with his head on Karna’s lap. A small insect started piercing Karna’s thigh. He felt severe pain but did not remove the insect assuming that the movement would disturb his Guru’s rest. Soon blood started flowing from Karna’s body. With contact of the warm blood, Parashuram woke up and noticed what had happened. He told Karna that he could not be a Brahmin. He insisted on knowing his true identity.

Karna confessed that he was the son of a Suta and begged his pardon. Parashuram felt deceived and became angry. He pronounced a curse on him. “For deceiving your Guru, your knowledge of weapon will fail you when you need it most.”  Karna felt dejected and walked away from the Guru’s hermitage.

On the way, suddenly an animal rushed past him. Without thinking he drew his bow and discharged an arrow on the animal killing it. He walked towards the dead animal. It was a cow. Instantly its owner a Brahmin arrived there. He accused Karna of killing his innocent cow. Karna attempted to pacify him and offered reparation. However, the Brahmin did not accept his offer and cursed him.  “You will be killed when you are helpless to defend yourself just like this innocent cow you killed.”

Having gone through misfortunes, Karna returned to his mother Radha for solace.

After sometime he became aware of an open tournament being held in Hastinapur. Kaurava and Pandava princes were to demonstrate their skills in martial art. The display of their skills started with fanfare. Elders, teachers and the general public attended the exhibition.

During the display, Arjun performed many supernatural feats and was almost declared a champion of the day. Suddenly Karna appeared in the arena. He announced to the audience that he could match all acts that Arjun had completed. Being an open tournament he was allowed and he did perform all those deeds.

The audience was impressed. Duryodhan recognised Karna as a fitting opponent of Arjun.

Karna challenged Arjun for a competition. Guru Kripacharya came forward and asked for his identity. As Arjun was a Pandava prince, he could only fight with a person equal in birth and status, a prince or a king. Karna felt mortified in revealing his identity as a Suta’s son. At that moment Duryodhan appeared before him. He crowned Karna as the prince of Angadesh to make him equal in status.

Just then Adhirath came towards the stage. When Karna saw him, he greeted him bowing down his head. The charioteer addressed the newly appointed prince as “my son” and embraced him.

Seeing this, Bhim realised that Karna was Adhirath’s son and commented with scorn, “O son of a charioteer, you are not entitled to death in battle with Arjun the son of Kunti.” Hearing this Duryodhan sprang up in support of Karna and reprimanded Bhim.

Kunti was present in the arena and witnessed the humiliation of her first-born son, whom she recognised through his Kawach and Kundals, but remained silent. As the princes were arguing their points, the sun set in the horizon. The display of skills was declared over.

Karna was so obliged to Duryodhan for his support that he committed to a lifelong friendship with him. He vowed to sacrifice his life for him and became a member of Duryodhan’s inner circle.

Karna attended Draupadi’s Svayamvar.  Draupadi humiliated him by refusing to allow the charioteer’s son to participate in it.

Karna was present during the game of dice between Pandavas and Kauravas. As a revenge for her action in the Svayamvar, he made vulgar comments against Draupadi during the robbing of her dress.

The enmity between Kauravas and Pandavas intensified. Impelled by his loyalty to Duryodhan, Karna blindly sided with him and promised to kill Arjun in battle.

Pandavas were exiled and it became obvious to deities that a war between Kauravas and Pandavas was eminent. As long as Karna remained equipped with his Kawach and Kundals he could not be killed.

Karna was a generous man. Anybody who came to him during his sun worship asking for a gift did not return without it. Indra was worried about his son Arjun so he planned to deprive Karna of his Kawach and Kundals, which made him invincible.

The night before Indra was to execute his plan, Surya, Karna’s divine father appeared before him in dream and told Karna about Indra’s plan. He advised him not to part with his Kawach and Kundals at any cost. However, Karna refused to deviate from his act of charity.

Indra appeared before Karna as a Brahmin and asked for a gift of Kawach and Kundals. Karna recognised that the person asking for the gift was Indra. He removed them from his body using a knife and gave them to Indra.

Indra felt ashamed of his own greed to favour Arjun and for depriving Karna from his natural protection. He gave Karna a divine spear that would not miss the target but it could be used only once and after that it would return to Indra. It was a consolation, but Karna felt cheated by fate. He intended to use this spear against Arjun.

After return of Pandavas from the exile they sought their kingdom back. Krishna as a well-wisher of Pandavas went to Hastinapur to negotiate with the Kauravas. Duryodhan declined to give any land without war and tried unsuccessfully to arrest Krishna. When the mission failed and Krishna was to return to Pandavas’ camp, Karna came to see him. He was apologetic for Duryodhan’s behaviour.

During the meeting, Krishna told him the story of his birth and asked him to join his natural Pandava brothers, as he was also a son of Kunti. However, Karna refused to join them and abandon Duryodhan. He also requested Krishna not to tell the story of his birth to Yudhisthir. If Yudhishthir knew, he would abdicate the kingdom in his favour and he would give it to Kauravas.

Before the start of the Mahabharat war, Kunti came to Karna who was offering oblations to the deity Surya in the River Ganga. She begged him to return to Pandavas’ side. Karna realised his dilemma. He promised that she would remain the mother of five sons. He would target to kill only Arjun among Pandavas. If Arjun killed him then all her sons would remain as it was. If Arjun were killed then he would join Kunti as her son.

During the war, Karna refused to fight under the leadership of Bhishma who became the Chief of the Kauravas’ army. Bhishma was critical of Karna and blamed him for inciting Duryodhan for the war. However, when Bhishma fell on the tenth day of the war, Karna visited him to pay him respect. Bhishma praised Karna for his commitment to friendship and blessed him. 

Karna joined the war on the eleventh day when Dronacharya became the Chief of Kauravas’ army. On the fourteenth day Bhim’s son Ghatotkach, a Rakshas fighting from the Pandavas’ side, inflicted heavy loss on the Kauravas. Karna was forced to use his Indra spear on him. It killed Ghatotkach but Karna lost his mighty weapon, which he had kept for use against Arjun.

On the sixteenth day, after Dronacharya’s death, Karna became the Chief of Kauravas’ army. He got opportunities to kill all Pandavas except Arjun but allowed them to get away, remembering his promise to Kunti. King Salya was his charioteer, who discouraged Karna during the battle due to a previous bargain. Salya was the maternal uncle of Pandavas.

During his fight with Arjun on the seventeenth day, a wheel of Karna’s chariot sank into the ground. He jumped down and tried unsuccessfully to drag it out. His memory failed to recall the Mantras of Parashuram. The curses of the Brahmin and Parashuram were in action. On Krishna’s prompting, Arjun shot an arrow and severed the great hero’s head.

When Kunti heard of Karna’s death, she lamented in private. After the war, Pandavas performed death ceremonies for the dead. When Yudhisthir had ended the last offering, Kunti told him to make an offering for Karna. On further enquiry, Kunti disclosed the full story of Karna’s birth.

Karna longed for recognition and good name in life and secured them like many great men only in his death. He is remembered for his bravery and generosity, and the misfortunes that framed his life. In modern era, he represents those who are subjected to injustice due to prevailing social division maintained by the dominant forces of the society.

Mirabai – The Princess Devotee of Lord Krishna

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Mirabai was a princess who became an ardent devotee of Lord Krishna. She composed Bhajans, devotional songs dedicated to Krishna. She danced and sang at temples and among devotees in devotional ecstasy.

She became one of the well-known devotional poets during Bhakti period in India. This period is also characterised by political uncertainty, internal strife and foreign domination. Intellectuals sought relief in spirituality and expressed their sentiments through devotional compositions.

The earliest reference to Mirabai is found in Nabhadas’ Shree Bhaktamal composed between 1597 and 1623 AD. In its commentary entitled Bhakti-Rasbodhini, completed in 1712 AD, Priyadas expanded the Nabhadas’ narrative. Both texts focussed on Mirabai’s devotion to Krishna and mentioned her suffering due to harassment from family members.

Biographical details of Mirabai have been a matter of debate among academics. Scholars have formulated her biography by analysing historical data. Where historical details are missing, her own writings and legends prevalent about her in the community have been used to complete her profile.

Mirabai’s mother was Vir Kumari and her father’s name was Ratan Singh. Ratan Singh was the youngest son of Rao Dudaji, who had established Merta near Jodhpur as an independent kingdom. Rao Dudaji’s father was Jodhaji who had founded Jodhpur. Recognising his outstanding service, Rao Dudaji had given a number of villages including Kukri to his youngest son as a reward for maintenance of his family.

Mirabai was born in 1498 AD at Kukri, where Ratan Singh’s family resided. It is generally accepted that during Vir Kumari’s pregnancy, Rao Dudaji sent a priest to Ratan Singh. He performed religious rites and narrated stories from scriptures for Vir Kumari, hoping that these rituals would shape virtuous qualities in the baby.

Mirabai was a child when her mother died. She came to Merta to live with her grandparents. Rao Dudaji was a devout worshipper of Vishnu. Mirabai displayed religious leaning from her early childhood. She was educated at home and received rigorous training in music. In addition to cultivating desirable qualities of a princess, she was taught skills that a warrior class woman required to have to cope with the difficult times of sixteenth century Rajasthan.

It is believed that in her childhood she received an idol of Krishna to which she became very attached.  There are differing narratives about how she came into possession of this idol. According to one narrative, when her mother was on her deathbed, she gave Mira the Krishna’s idol, assuring that Krishna would be her guardian.

Another version states that a wandering Sadhu named Raidas, also known as Ravidas, an adherent of Ramanandi Vaishnav sect, presented it to her. Mirabai had mentioned Raidas as her Guru in her poems. Opinion on this is divided, as Raidas would have been over a hundred years of age at the time he is supposed to have given her the idol. 

One legend relates the idol to a wedding party, which passed by her palace. Observing the procession, she asked her mother who would be her bridegroom. The mother gave her the idol of Krishna and said that he would be her husband. Mirabai took it seriously and inferred that she was married to Krishna.

She spent most of the time with the idol and treated it as her divine husband. She decorated the idol, sang songs, worshipped and danced to please it.

Mirabai wedded prince Bhojraj, the son of Rana Sanga of Mewar in 1516 AD. During the marriage ceremony, Mirabai kept the Krishna’s idol with her.  After the wedding she moved to Chittor, the capital of Mewar with her husband. She took the idol with her.

Chittor’s patron deity was goddess Kali. After the wedding, Mirabai was brought to the Kali temple to worship the deity but she refused to do so stating that her deity was Giridhar Gopal, Krishna.

As per family tradition Mirabai was asked to cook meat as an offering to Kali. She detested the killing of innocent animals for deities and declined. Bhojraj’s family, especially his mother and sister Uda, were annoyed with her behaviour. They considered her refusal to adhere to family tradition as a bad omen. Their displeasure and meddling in her activities continued in the future. They tried to find faults with Mirabai’s actions and instigated her husband against her.

Bhojraj was sympathetic to Mirabai’s feelings. Mira loved her husband and performed her household duties diligently. Whenever she was free, she devoted her time to adoring Krishna. She used to visit a Krishna temple outside the palace. Bhojraj built a Krishna temple in the palace where Mirabai could worship in private.

Five years after their marriage, her husband died in 1521 AD due to a battle wound. Her relatives insisted that she should commit Sati, burn herself willingly on the funeral pyre of her dead husband. Mirabai declined indicating that her husband was Krishna who remained with her and had never died.

After the death of her father-in-law, her brother-in-law named Ratan Singh became Rana or the head of the kingdom.

The widowed Mirabai became fully engrossed in Krishna’s worship. She spent most of her time in Krishna’s temple.

She met sages, religious scholars and wandering Sadhus who visited the temple. A large number of devotees attended her discourses. She broke the conventional traditions of royal household by establishing contacts with outsiders.

The family disliked her meeting outsiders. Dancing and singing in public was beyond the norm of a royal warrior class family.

Ratan Singh was strongly opposed to Mirabai’s religious activities. He especially hated Sadhus who visited her. He presumed them to be spies for his opponents. He wanted to put an end to her actions and planned to kill her.

Once he sent a poisonous snake hidden in a flower basket to Mirabai. After offering prayers to Krishna, she opened the basket to offer flowers to him. She found the box filled only with flowers. No snake could be seen.

According to another version when she opened the box she found a Shaligram, the stone form of Vishnu instead of the snake.

On another occasion, Ratan Singh sent a cup full of poison for Mirabai to drink suggesting it to be sanctified water. Mirabai offered it to Krishna and drank from the cup without coming to any harm.

It is also stated that Rana placed poison tipped nails concealed in rose petals on her bed. When she lay down on the bed, the nails turned limp and soft like the rose petals.

Mirabai described these incidents in her poems and credited her escape from death to Krishna.

Ratan Singh was assassinated in 1531 AD and Vikramjit succeeded him.

Mirabai continued her routine of singing and dancing in the temple as usual. Visitors to temple spread her devotional songs, which became popular across northern India. Her fame spread far and wide.

According to one legend, emperor Akbar became aware of Mirabai’s fame and spirituality. He wished to see her. He travelled in disguise with his court poet Tansen and attended her congregation.

Akbar was impressed by her devotion and spiritual fervour. He placed at her feet a priceless necklace during his departure. Mirabai put the necklace on Krishna’s idol. The news of Akbar touching her feet reached Vikramjit. He was furious and ordered her to commit suicide by drowning in a river.

She decided to honour his command but as she entered the water, Krishna held her hand and directed her to go to Vrindavan, the sacred site where he had spent his childhood. She could worship there in peace. She followed Krishna’s instruction.

After some time Vikramjit became repentant, assuming that Mirabai was a real saint. He travelled to Vrindavan and requested her to return home to which Mirabai agreed.

Despite requesting Mirabai’s return to his kingdom, Vikramjit continued to prosecute Mirabai even though she was not involved in political intricacies.

Tired of interference and harassment from her husband’s family Mirabai left Chittor and returned to Merta, her parental estate. She could not stay in peace in Merta for long. Her uncle Viramdeo was the head of the kingdom and he objected to her life preferences. He alleged that her activities were more suited to an ascetic woman than to a royal princess.

She sought advice from poet Tulasi Das for her recourse. It is believed that following his advice Mirabai decided to go to Vrindavan again. There she stayed for sometime and dedicated her time to composing devotional songs and singing them in front of Krishna’s idol.

In Vrindavan, Mirabai once wished to see a saint. She went to his Ashram and requested his disciple to inform the saint about her request. The disciple informed her that the saint did not meet women. She was surprised and commented, “I knew that there was only one real man in Vrindavan. He was Krishna. All others are Gopis, lovers of Krishna.” The saint overheard her comment and realised his fault. He came running and urged her to visit his Ashram but she refused and went away.

Vrindavan was not very far from Chittor and Merta. Devotees from these regions used to visit her regularly in Vrindavan. The royal families of these kingdoms were also irritants to her services to Krishna. She decided to move away from there to Dwarka, another place associated with Krishna. In Dwarka she lived till her end. She died in 1546 AD.

A legend is also woven to her death. It is believed that Udai Singh who succeeded Rana Vikramjit on the throne of Chittor sent a deputation of renowned Brahmins to bring Mirabai back. Mirabai was reluctant to return home. When forced by Brahmins, she indicated her wish to spend the night at the Ranchhorji temple. She went inside and was never seen again. It is believed that she merged with the statue of Krishna.

 It is not known whether she actually died in the night or she quietly left Dwarka at night to maintain her independence and religious belief, and spent the rest of her life incognito visiting pilgrimage sites.

As the date of Mirabai’s disappearance is accepted as 1546, her meeting with Akbar and Tansen is inconsistent with historical facts. Tansen joined his court after Akbar ascended the throne in 1556 AD. Akbar could have met her only after her escape alive from the Ranchhorji temple.

Mirabai composed her poems or song verses in Braj-bhasha, which was widely popular in North India during her time. Some words from Rajasthani and Gujarati can also be found in her poems.

A female attendant named Lalita always accompanied her. Lalita was loyal to her and was also educated. She wrote down Mirabai’s poems during her companionship. Mirabai herself might have written some poems.

Original manuscripts written by Mirabai or Lalita were mostly lost. Travelling saints and devotees who attended Mirabai’s congregation spread her works by remembering and later reciting them during their subsequent gatherings.

There are differing opinions about the number of her poetical works. The oldest available complete volume of Mirabai’s poems contains 103 poems. Songs culled from other anthologies number around 400. Most of these are repetitions of the 103 core poems with slight variations.

Many followers of Mirabai believe that she was an incarnation of Radha, the Gopi friend of Krishna’s childhood. Others claim that Mirabai displayed jealousy against Radha assuming that she was also competing for Krishna’s love.

Mirabai in her poems followed the Bhakti tradition established by devotional poets dedicated to Krishna such as Jayadev, Vidyapati and Chandidas. Her Krishna as worshipped by most devotees was not the warrior of the Mahabharat, but the Giridhar Gopal, the one who lifted Mount Govardhan. He was the cow grazier, lover of Gopis and the heroic child of Yashoda of the tenth book of Bhagavat Puran.

Her poems refer to Krishna as her saviour, friend and lover. They mostly display Dasya, Sakhya and Madhurya modes of devotion to God as acknowledged in the Vaishnav tradition.

Mirabai remained steadfast in her belief despite suffering persecutions from those who were supposed to protect her. She symbolises determination. She is recognised as a saint in Hindu tradition. Her devotional poems remain popular throughout India.

Surdas – The Devotional Poet

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Surdas was a poet and singer who composed and sang devotional poems dedicated to lord Krishna in Brajabhasha, a vernacular of Hindi. In his own compositions, he has been identified as Surdas, Surajdas, Sur and Surshyam.

Scant information is available in his compositions to frame a legible biography of Surdas. External sources are used to create a profile of his life and work, but they offer conflicting details, and consequently profiles derived from them are not unanimously accepted.

All scholars agree that Vallabhacharya, the main proponent Acharya of Pushtimarg Sect of Vaishnaivism, initiated Surdas to his tradition. Pushtimarg is also known as Rudra Vaishnav Sampraday. It stresses on devotion to lord Krishna for attaining spiritual merits. His philosophy has spread in many regions of India.

Modern rendering of Shree Bhaktamal, a book composed by Nabhadas in late sixteenth century, and its commentary entitled Rasbodhani by Priyadas, has compiled Surdas’ biographical details, which are in agreement with his profile in literatures of the Pushtimarg tradition.

According to Bhaktamal, Surdas was born in a village named Sihi near Delhi in Vikram Samvat 1535 (AD 1478). He was born blind. He was named Surdas, a term commonly used to refer to a blind person. As the baby grew, he acquired specific abilities to compose and sing songs.

His father used to take Surdas to his clients during his visits to perform religious discourses. During such events, Surdas sang devotional songs beautifully, and impressed his audiences. They rewarded him with gifts and recognitions.

Over time, he also gained and cultivated a talent of prescience for locating missing objects.

Despite his unusual and amazing traits, his family members became indifferent to him. They assumed him to be a potential burden on them for life. Surdas became aware of strained relationships in the family due to him. He decided to leave and devote his time in the service of God. He moved out from his house and started living under a Peepal tree, ficus religiosa, away from his village.

Living alone under the tree, he used to sing devotional songs and chant prayers. He also addressed queries from local villagers, who came to him to seek help in finding missing objects. His responses normally proved accurate.

Obliged by his services, people brought food and other essential items that supported his existence. Once a landlord came to him seeking his assistance in finding his cattle. Surdas foretold him the location of the missing animal, which proved to be precise. The landlord became pleased and built a hut for him. Surdas became popular as Pragyachkshu, the one who sees through knowledge.

News of his skills in composing and singing verses and also in foretelling spread widely. People flocked around him to listen to his songs and for help in locating their lost properties. He became admired in the region. A number of people became his devoted followers and assisted him in daily routines.

Surdas was about eighteen years old at this stage. He sensed that he was getting entangled in worldly affairs. He had left home to devote time to spirituality but became busy in gaining fame and followers by spending time on mundane activities. He realised that it would not be possible for him to change the course of his activities while living in the current place, as he had become too well known. He decided to move away from there.

He came to Mathura but he did not feel comfortable there. He moved to Renuka-kshetra, now known as Runkata on the Agra-Mathura road. At Runkata, he came into contact with saints and other religious persons, and gained spiritual insight. However, he felt overwhelmed, as the place lacked peaceful environment.

From Runkata, he relocated to Gau Ghat on the banks of River Yamuna. There he learnt formal skills in poetry and music.  He continued composing and singing verses. His reputation as a devotional singer spread widely and he became well respected among the religious communities.

Vallabhacharya was on pilgrimage to the Braj-ksetra. During his pilgrimage, he temporarily stayed near Gau Ghat. He had heard of Surdas who was living in the same area. He wished to see him. Surdas also learnt about him and desired to meet the Acharya.

Surdas went to Vallabhacharya to offer his respect to him. The Acharya welcomed him and expressed his wish to listen to his compositions.  Surdas obliged gratefully and sang a prayer poem, which portrayed him very humble and helpless person.

Vallabhacharya was impressed by his performance and praised him for his talent.  He asked him to use his genius in the service of Krishna by composing and singing his glories and pastime. Surdas expressed his lack of proper knowledge of Krishna and his activities. Vallabhacharya initiated Surdas into his sect. He familiarised him with his Subodhani commentary of Bhagavat Puran and narrated him stories from it. Learning about Krishna’s pastime delighted Surdas. He started composing and singing verses relating to Krishna’s activities.

Soon Vallabhacharya moved to Gokul. Surdas accompanied him. Surdas visited the Krishna temple daily for Darshan of the deity Navneetpriya, butter lover.  Navneetpriya is one of Krishna’s names common in the Pushtimarg tradition. It relates to Krishna’s preference for butter during his childhood. Vallabhacharya preferred worshipping the child form of Krishna. Surdas composed original verses relating to Krishna and sang them in the temple.

From Gokul, Surdas came to Govardhan Hills along with Vallabhacharya. There he worshiped the deity in the Shrinathji temple.  Shrinathji is also another name of Krishna. The environment in and around the temple impressed Surdas. He decided to stay in close proximity of the temple and devote his time in the service of Shrinathji. He set up his residence in a place called Parasoli near lake Chandra-Sarovar. He visited Shrinathji daily and sang his newly composed verses in the temple.

During a travel alone, Surdas fell into a deep pit and stayed there for days. He remained hopeful and chanted prayers to Krishna, who appeared before him in person and pulled him out of the pit by holding his hand. After getting him out of the ditch, Krishna tried to free his hand, but Surdas held it tightly, and informed him that now he would never leave him.

Surdas accepted the Nirgun form, the form without attribute, of God but he preferred to worship the Sagun form, the form with physical attributes.  Krishna in his childhood and adolescent forms was his adorable God.

After Vallabhacharya, his son Vitthal Gosain became leader of the Pushtimarg sect. His preferred deity was adolescent Krishna.  Vitthal established a team of poets known as Ashtachhap, eight marked poets who composed devotional songs for the sect. Surdas became the chief Ashtachhap. He was designated the main singer of devotional songs at the temple.

Surdas came in contact with other saints and poets of Pushtimarg sect at the temple. They contributed to compiling his compositions and disseminated them far and wide. His poems, being in local dialect, were easy to remember and sing. His compositions became popular widely in North India.

Once, Tansen, Akbar’s court poet, sang Surdas’ composition in his court. Akbar was highly impressed by the song and desired Surdas sing for him in person. A meeting was arranged and he met Surdas in VS 1623. Akbar listened to Surdas’ melodic performance glorifying Krishna and praised him for enhancing the spiritual tradition through his songs.

On one occasion Surdas went to Gokul to visit the Navneetpriya temple. Shree Giridhar, son of Vitthal Gosain was in charge of the temple. He wanted to test Surdas’ ability to foretell. He decorated the idol of the deity in the temple with ornaments without normal dress, and asked Surdas to describe the beauty of the deity. Surdas sensed the style of decoration and described it in verses that truly depicted its opulence in unusual adornment. Giridhar felt ashamed of his action and realised his folly.

Surdas continued singing songs in Shrinath temple until the end of his life. One day Vitthal did not find him in the temple. He went to Surdas’ residence to enquire about his health. He found him on his deathbed. Surdas left his mortal body in the lap of Vitthal at the age eighty-five years.

In the words of Vallabhacharya, Surdas was a sea of devotion. According to Vitthal, he was a ship of Pushtimarg. Surdas had detailed knowledge of the Pushtimarg philosophy. He is believed to be an incarnation of Krishna’s friend Uddhav. He came to Earth to spread Krishna’s glory in the age of Kali.

Following the preferences of Pushtimarg Acharyas Vallabhacharya and Vitthal, Surdas focussed on describing pastimes of Krishna’s childhood and adolescence. 

Surdas composed around 1.25 lakhs of poems during his creative life. Most of his poems are lost. His work is divided into three groups that include poems composed before initiation to Pushtimarg; those composed during the lifetime of Vallabhacharya; and those during the period of Vitthal.

Initial creations were mostly prayer songs. During his association with Acharyas, his work focussed on describing Krishna’s pastimes. He also wrote poems based on other texts including the Ramayan, Mahabharat and Purans.

Sursagar, Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lahari are three books that are authentic compilations of his work. A number of other books are also credited to him, but scholars disagree on that assertion.  Sursagar is his most popular book that contains around 5,400 poems. It includes detailed descriptions of Krishna’s life mostly based on the Bhagavat Puran.

Details relating to child Krishna stealing butter from Gopis’ houses, teasing them and his playful behaviour with mother Yashoda are vividly described in Sursagar.

Krishna’s cattle grazing, his destruction of various demons, lifting Govardhan Hills, subduing Kaliya serpent and other activities are portrayed to demonstrate his divine status.

Surdas introduced Radha, the female partner of Krishna, in his composition. Radha did not appear as a specific character in the Bhagavat Puran. However, poets such as Vidyapati, Jaidev and Chandidas had introduced her as Krishna’s lover in their compositions previously.

Surdas followed the tradition established by these poets and described Radha and Krishna as lovers. Radha attained the status of Lakshmi through her association with Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu. The poems describing affairs between them are full of Shringar Ras or romantic love.

After Krishna moved from Vrindavan to Mathura, he sent his friend Uddhav to console his Gopi friends and elders. The dialogues between Gopis and him related to understanding the divine nature of Krishna and his pastime in Vrindavan as a son of Nand and Yashoda.

Sursagar also contains sections relating to Dwarka and events from the Ramayan and other legends from Purans.

Descriptions of minute details of Krishna’s pastime and activities in his work led many scholars to believe that Surdas could not have been blind from birth.  An alternate profile has also been written. According to this profile, his original name was Bilvamangal. He was a married man but maintained strong attachment to a Ganika, female dancer named Chintamani. His family unsuccessfully tried to dissuade him from her.

Later, Chintamani rebuked him for his wild attachment to her and neglectful behaviour towards his own family. Disappointed at her treatment, Bilvamangal left her and went away to become a Sadhu, holy man. However, his love towards Chintamani did not fade.

 Once he saw a lady in a temple. He followed her to her home assuming her to be Chintamani. When he realised his idiocy, he blamed his own eyes for his distraction. He pricked his both eyes with needles and became a blind man, Surdas. Subsequent events follow almost a similar narrative as described earlier.

Surdas remains one of most popular devotional poets dedicated to Krishna. Several films have been made on the life of Surdas. Delhi Doordarshan had broadcast a TV serial on the life of Surdas. 

Surdas’ work is an important source for Raslila, a popular folklore dance displaying activities performed by Krishna, Radha and other Gopis. His compositions are also found in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.

Surdas’ poems remain incredibly popular even now and are chanted by religious devotees, professional as well as amateur singers and common public during private and public cultural and religious events.

Sita – The Lakshmi Incarnate

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

The ninth day of the month of Vaishakh (May – June) is celebrated as Sita Navami or the Birthday of Sita. It is believed that King Janak of Mithila found Sita on this day at Sita-Kund in Sitamarhi, Bihar. Sita is the main female character of the Ramayan. She is known by many other names including Janaki, Vaidehi and Maithili.

Stories relating to Sita’s birth vary in different editions and retellings of the Ramayan. According to the Valmiki Ramayan, Janak was ploughing a piece of land to make it suitable as a site for performing a Yagya, religious sacrament. During the tilling, his plough struck a vessel in the furrow. He opened the cover of the vessel and noticed a baby girl in it. He brought the baby home. Janak and his wife Sunayana had not yet their own child so adopted her as their daughter.

The baby was named Sita, a Sanskrit word for furrow. The term Sita has been mentioned as a deity of fertility in the Vedas. Mantras 6 and 7 of Rigved hymn 4.57 are addressed to Sita. According to Grihya-Sutras, they were chanted during the start of ritual ploughing of land for abundant agricultural yields.

Sita transpired to be auspicious for Janak. Soon after her adoption, Queen Sunayana delivered a baby girl, who was named Urmila. The kingdom received good rain that resulted in abundant harvests. Subjects became more prosperous and happier.

Fortune-tellers predicted that Sita would marry an extraordinary person, and would contribute greatly in destroying evil forces. They also indicated that she would be required to make incredible sacrifices in life.

Janak had inherited a bow from his ancestors. It was used by lord Shiv himself. The bow was so massive that no human used it, and it was stowed on a platform.

When Sita attained the marriageable age, Janak decided to find a suitable husband for her. He was conscious of her exemplary traits. He concluded that lifting the Shiv-bow and stringing it would be an appropriate test of abilities for a candidate aspiring to wed Sita.    

A Svayamvar, ritual for choosing one’s husband, was arranged for Sita. It was formally declared that whoever lifted and strung the Shiv-bow would qualify to marry her. Kings and princes from various kingdoms were invited to participate. Sage Vishvamitra was invited to witness the event. He, along with Ram and Lakshman, arrived at Janakpur, the capital of Janak’s kingdom.

As a part of the ritual, Sita went to worship goddess Gauri whose temple was located in the royal garden. Ram and Lakshman were picking flowers for Vishvamitra in the same garden. Sita and Ram saw each other in the garden for the first time and were enchanted.

Later, Sita visited the temple and prayed to goddess Gauri. She was conscious of her father’s terms for Svayamvar and hence did not directly pray for Ram to be bestowed as her husband. She only prayed for fulfilling her wishes which goddess was aware of as an omniscient.

Sita was exceptionally beautiful and an embodiment of charm. Poets and storytellers expressed their inability to find any simile to describe her grace.

Tulasidas states in Ramcharit Manas that what to tell about mortal women, even celestials like Saraswati being a chatterer, Paravti being half bodied, other half being Shiv and Rati being distressed due to her bodiless husband Kamdev cannot be equated to Sita. It is beyond comprehension to compare Sita with Lakshmi whose brothers are poison and alcohol, referring to her origin from churning of the Celestial Ocean.

In the Svayamvar, all the invited candidates failed to move the bow, let alone string it, which made Sita and her parents anxious. Seeing them disturbed, Vishvamitra asked Ram to try. He easily lifted the bow and as he attempted to string it, the bow broke. Sita accepted and garlanded Ram as the successful candidate to marry her.

Envoys were sent to Ram’s father, king Dasarath, with invitation to participate in his son’s wedding. Wedding ceremonies were held and Sita married Ram according to family traditions. Sunayana, her mother, instructed Sita about the duties and responsibilities of a newly wed wife.

After the completion of rituals and celebrations, Sita along with Ram and other family members came to Ayodhya. She was welcomed with pomp and ceremony. She lived happily in Ayodhya with her husband and the extended family.

When his coronation was abandoned, Ram accepted his exile for fourteens years to uphold his father’s pledge to his stepmother Kaikeyi. Ram decided to go alone to the forest to live a life of ascetic. When Sita became aware of his decision, she insisted on accompanying him. Ram attempted to dissuade her but she remained adamant to follow him. She was willing to sacrifice her life if she was separated from her husband. Eventually, she went to the forest with Ram and Lakshman. She wore the dress of ascetics, the similar as Ram and Lakshman had donned.

On the way, Sita offered prayers to River Ganga. They crossed the river by a boat. After crossing the river, Ram wished to give to the boatman the fare, but he had nothing valuable to give. Sita realised his predicament, and immediately took out her ring and presented it to Ram to pay the fare.

While roaming in the forest, Sita along with Ram and Lakshman came upon the Ashram of sage Atri. Sita met the sage’s wife Anusuya who was an accomplished ascetic. Anusuya gifted Sita divine dresses, which always remained fresh, clean and spotless. Sita listened to her discourse on the roles and responsibilities of women. Sita also visited other sages throughout her wandering.

During the later part of exile, the trio made their residence in Panchvati on the banks of River Godavari. There they met the bird Jatayu, who became a friend.

Once Surpanakha, a sister of Ravan, visited their Ashram. She threatened to devour Sita in order to free Ram for herself. Lakshman disfigured her by cutting her nose. This led to a direct confrontation with demonic forces, headed by Ravan.

Sita saw a golden deer strolling around her dwelling during her stay in Panchvati. It was the demon Marich who had changed his appearance through illusion. Ravan had sent him to attract Sita’s attention. Sita was charmed by the deer’s beauty and insisted on having it. Ram went to catch the deer, instructing Lakshman to ensure Sita’s safety.

 Soon they heard a distress call in the voice of Ram. Sita became alarmed and sent Lakshman away to help Ram. In the meantime, Ravan, in the disguise of an ascetic appeared before Sita. On the pretext of asking for alms, he kidnapped her. Jatayu noticed Ravan’s offence and fought against him to free Sita from his captivity, but was killed.

Ravan carried Sita away to his capital Lanka, and kept her in the Ashokvan. During the kidnapping flight, Sita dropped on a hill some personal items that later became useful in finding her whereabouts.

Sita spent her time in Ashokvan reminiscing the past and hoping to get rescued by his powerful husband. Sentries kept her under their close observation, and threatened and harassed her. Ravan persuaded her to accept him as her husband, but Sita always derided him for his transgression.

When Ram and Lakshman returned to their Ashram after killing the illusory deer, they could not find Sita. They started their search for her in the forest.  During this time, Ram met Hanuman, who introduced him to Sugreev. Both Ram and Sugreev became friends and committed to help each other. Sugreev showed Ram the items, which were dropped from the sky and had been found on the hills. Ram recognised those items that belonged to Sita. After becoming a king, Sugreev led the search for Sita. He sent his followers in all directions to locate her.

The team that included Hanuman was sent to the South.  Hanuman flew over the sea, landed in Lanka and found Sita in the Ashokvan. He hid in a tree and dropped the ring that Ram had given to him, as his token to present to her. Hanuman then appeared before Sita and disclosed the purpose of his visit to her. Sita recognised the ring and trusted Hanuman. Sita was so impressed with Hanuman that she blessed him with immortal life. Sita gave Hanuman her crest jewel to deliver to Ram, as a symbol of his meeting with her.

With the help of monkeys and bears, Ram built a bridge, which connected mainland India to Lanka, and landed with his army on its shores. A war was declared, and Ravan and other demon warriors were killed. Vibhishan, a brother of Ravan, who had defected to Ram before the war, was coronated the king of Lanka.

Sita was freed from captivity. She was brought to Ram to unite with him. However, Ram looked contemptuously at her and demanded that she prove her innocence and purity. Sita asked Lakshman to fetch wood and prepare the fire. Lakshman followed her wish. Sita entered into the burning fire and came out of it unharmed. Ram felt relieved and welcomed his wife with love and respect.

The time of their exile was close to end. They boarded the Pushpak Viman, an aerial carrier, and departed for Ayodhya. En route, Ram showed Sita the places where major events had occurred during her captivity. 

Sita along with Ram and Lakshman returned to Ayodhya after completing the duration of banishment. Bharat, the acting king and his entourage welcomed them. Ram was crowned as the king and Sita as the queen of Ayodhya. They ruled for many years and their rule, known as Ram Rajya, became an ideal model of governance for subsequent generations.

The Uttarkand of Valmiki Ramayan contains additional episodes including the second exile of Sita. When she became pregnant, she expressed her desire to visit the forest and enjoy natural beauty.  In the meantime, Ram became aware of a remark by a washerman who berated Sita’s purity due to her living in other man’s house.

Although his trust and love to Sita never wavered, Ram decided to send her to the forest to allay misconceptions among his subjects. As instructed by Ram, Lakshman drove her to the forest and left her alone. Disciples of sage Valmiki spotted her and informed their preceptor about the lonely woman. Valmiki learned about her situation through his divine vision and welcomed Sita to his Ashram. In due course she gave birth to twin brothers Lav and Kush. Sita raised her sons alone. They grew up valiant and intelligent. Valmiki taught them the Ramayan, which they sang melodiously.

During Sita’s exile, Ram performed a royal sacrifice in which a golden statue represented her. The twins attended the ceremony as singers of Ramayan. They met Ram and claimed they were his sons. Their mother Sita had been unjustly exiled. Ram demanded that let Sita prove her innocence in front of the citizens of Ayodhya. Sage Valmiki brought Sita to Ram’s court. In front of the audience, Sita sought refuge in the earth if she was truthful and chaste. Immediately, the earth opened and Sita entered into it.

Various other stories relating to Sita are also popular. According to a tale in Padma Puran, Sita heard a pair of parrots talking about her marriage with Ram when she was young. The parrots had overheard the story in Valmiki’s Ashram where they resided. Sita was fascinated by their account. She caught them and placed in a cage. She wished to keep them until her marriage to test the accuracy of their tale.

The female parrot was pregnant. She requested Sita to release them, as they were made to roam freely in the sky. Sita released the male but kept the female in captivity. The female soon died due to separation from her partner. Before dying, she cursed Sita to be separated from her husband when she became pregnant. The male parrot was also heartbroken and died. He was born as a washerman in Ayodhya in his next life. It was the same person who spread gossip about Sita.

Sita is believed to be an incarnation of goddess Lakshmi. She appeared on the earth to help Ram, the Vishnu incarnate to destroy demonic forces. She is worshipped along with Ram in temples across the world.

Queen Draupadi

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Draupadi is one of the principal characters of the Mahabharat, the sacred text composed by the legendary poet Ved Vyas. Draupadi is believed to be a partial incarnation of goddess Lakshmi. She appeared on the earth to assist divine forces to destroy the demons that had become kings and fighters during the age of Dwapar. Her father was Drupad, the king of Panchal. Her husbands were the five Pandava brothers, Yudhishthir, Bhim, Arjun, Nakul and Sahadev.

Guru Dronacharya had humiliated Drupad and appropriated half of his kingdom by force. Drupad never reconciled with the disgrace and was determined to avenge the Guru. Realising himself incapable to retaliate, he longed for a son who could kill Dronacharya. For getting divine support, he searched for a seer who could perform the sacred ritual that would enable him to obtain such a son.

 Drupad found the seer named Yaj who agreed to perform the Putrayeshti or son-giving sacrifice. Yaj started the rite with the king and asked him to make the queen available to join at the chosen time. When the time approached, the queen was still not ready. Yaj did not wait for her, as the auspicious time was about to elapse. He offered the oblation to the sacrificial fire with specific Mantras before the queen arrived. Two fully-grown persons, a male and a female appeared from the fire pit. Both accepted the king and the queen as their parents.

The male was named Dhrishtadhyumna, who later became Commander in Chief of the Pandavas’ army. The female was named Draupadi.  She was also known by other names including Krishna that referred to her dark complexion and Panchali referring to her status as the princess of Panchal.

King Drupad arranged Svayamvar for Draupadi to choose a suitable husband. Kings and princes from all over India were invited to attend. To test the suitability of the candidates he had set a condition that required the highest level of skill in archery. Aspiring candidates were expected to fix the string of the bow and hit the arrow into the eye of a fish replica, which was spinning at a certain height over a tank filled with water. They were to aim at the eye by looking on the reflection of the revolving fish on water in the tank.

Pandava brothers, with mother Kunti, had escaped safely from the Lakshagrih, the house of wax, which was devised by the Kauravas to burn them. They lived in disguise of Brahmins and survived on alms. During the period of Svayamvar, they lived in the Panchal kingdom. They joined a group of Brahmins and attended the Svayamvar in expectation of getting generous gifts.

During the main event, Draupadi was standing with a garland to honour the winning candidate. Kshatriya kings and princes tried to lift the bow, but none succeeded. Then Karna, the king of Anga tried. He lifted the bow and succeeded in stringing the bow. At that moment Draupadi interrupted and objected to Karna’s eligibility. She was unwilling to consider Karna as a potential husband due to his ancestry. It was believed that he was a son of charioteer. Karna grudgingly abandoned his attempt.

 Wishful Kshatriyas could not meet the condition of Svayamvar. Arjun in disguise of a Brahmin appeared at the scene and sought permission from Drupad to try. Drupad consented. Arjun lifted the bow, tied the string and with an arrow hit the target in his first attempt. Draupadi accepted Arjun as her husband and garlanded him. Kshatriya kings and princes objected to a Brahmin’s victory but were overpowered by Arjun and Bhim.

Pandava brothers brought Draupadi to their residence. Kunti was inside the house busy with domestic chores.  They wanted to surprise their mother. Arjun said, ‘Mother, see what alms we have brought today”. She responded without looking at the alms and told them to distribute equally among all the five brothers. Draupadi and Pandavas were shocked. In the meantime, Kunti came out and saw the beautiful lady with her sons. She learnt that her sons had called Draupadi alms.

Sharing a woman among five brothers was against the social norms. The words of mother Kunti could not be overruled. As the family was deliberating, lord Krishna arrived at Pandavas’ residence and spoke about the inevitability of Draupadi having five husbands. He told them the story of Draupadi’s previous life.

In the previous life she had worshipped lord Shiva for a suitable husband. When Shiva appeared to bless her, she asked for a husband five times with five specific attributes. Shiva told her that the attributes she had asked could not be found in a single person. In her next life, she would get five husbands, each with the requested quality. 

Ultimately, Draupadi was married to all five Pandava brothers.

Seers and wellwishers of Pandavas advised them to make rules about managing the relationship with their common wife. It was agreed that if one husband was with Draupadi, others should not enter her chamber. If anyone entered, he would go to exile for twelve years. To allow for having progeny, she would spend one year with each husband in turn. These conditions served them well. Draupadi became the mother of five children, one with each husband.

Once, Arjun inadvertently entered Draupadi’s chamber when she was with Yudhishthir. As per the agreed terms, Arjun went into exile, and obtained various weapons and charms that helped them in later events of their life.

After marriage, Draupadi along with Pandavas and Kunti came to Hastinapur, capital of the Kuru kingdom. She was welcomed as a daughter-in-law with respect. In order to minimise discord between Pandavas and Kauravas, the kingdom was divided. Pandavas were given Khandavaprasth, a forested wasteland as their share of the kingdom. They converted the wasteland into a prosperous kingdom with their capital called Indraprasth.

Yudhishthir became an emperor and performed a Rajsuya Yagya, royal consecration. Kings, princes and honourable leaders including Krishna, Shishupal, Duryodhan and elders of the Kuru dynasty participated in the event. Following an argument over selection of the first recipient of honour at the consecration, Krishna killed Shishupal through his Sudarshan Chakra. His finger was hurt and started bleeding. Draupadi tore out a piece of fabric from her sari and bandaged Krishna’s injured finger.

Duryodhan was awed by the opulence and splendour of Pandavas’ achievements. Renowned architect Maya, master of illusion, had built their palaces. While exploring various sections of the buildings, Duryodhan became mesmerised. During a stroll through a hall, he mistook solid surface to water filled pond and lifted his garments to avoid them wetting. On another occasion, he stepped in water filled pond assuming it to be dry surface and fell into it. Draupadi observed his movements and was amused.  She laughed and pointing at him commented, “The son of a blind man is blind”. Duryodhan felt ashamed, became infuriated and left the site bitterly.

Soon after the events at royal consecration, Kauravas invited Pandavas to a game of dice. Yudhishthir could not resist the invitation for gambling. Pandavas along with Draupadi went to Hastinapur. The game was arranged in the royal court and all major elders of the kingdom were in attendance.

Shakuni, the maternal uncle of Kauravas was an expert in the game of dice. He played on behalf of Duryodhan. Yudhishthir played from the Pandavas’ side. Yudhishthir started losing the game from the beginning, and as the gambling continued, he lost everything including his kingdom, brothers and himself. Finally he wagered Draupadi. Shakuni won the wager for Duryodhan, who declared all the Pandavas and Draupadi as his slaves. He intended to humiliate Draupadi for her earlier insult. Karna, a friend of Duryodhan, also found an opportunity to take revenge of her comment during the Svayamvar, and spoke contemptibly about Draupadi.

Duryodhan ordered a guard to bring Draupadi to the gambling hall. Draupadi was in period and refused to go outside her chamber. Then Duryodhan sent his brother Duhshasan to bring her forcibly. He dragged Draupadi to the hall by grabbing her hair.

Draupadi questioned the whole assembly including king Dhritrastra, Bhishma, Dronacharya and others about the righteousness of Yudhishthir wagering her. No one answered to her satisfaction. Then Duryodhan instructed Duhshasan to disrobe Draupadi in the middle of the assembly. Duhshasan complied and started removing her sari. She entreated for help but no one came forward to succour.  Draupadi remembered Krishna and begged for his mercy. Krishna with his divine action supplied an immeasurable length of cloth. Duhshasan could not undress her.

Ill omens started appearing.  Draupadi vowed not to tie her hair until she had washed it with the blood of Duhshasan. Dhritrastra became scared of Draupadi’s divine power and restored all that Pandavas had lost during the gambling.

On Duryodhan’s instigation, a second gambling contest was arranged. Pandavas lost and according to the terms of the contest, they were exiled for thirteen years. The last year of the exile was to be spent incognito. If they were revealed during the final year, then they had to spend another twelve years in exile. Draupadi accompanied the Pandavas during their banishment.

During the exile, sage Durvasa, well known for his short temper, visited Pandavas after mealtime. As customary, Yudhishthir invited him for a meal. Durvasa accepted and promised to return after taking a bath. Draupadi who usually ate last had eaten her meal and washed the Akshay Patra.

The Akshay Patra had the power to supply unlimited food, as long as it was not washed. Draupadi faced a dilemma of feeding Durvasa. She remembered Krishna who immediately appeared and asked for food. She brought the Akshay Patra to show her inability to feed anyone. Krishna noticed a particle of grain in the Patra. He ate it and expressed satisfaction. Durvasa was on the way to Pandavas’ cottage. Immediately, he felt his hunger satisfied and went away without troubling the Pandavas.

Once Pandavas were out collecting food in the forest.  Jayadrath, the king of Sindhu and husband of Duryodhan’s sister passed by their cottage. He saw Draupadi alone in her lodge and became infatuated.  He caught her by force and carried her away in his chariot. In the meantime Pandavas returned and noticed Draupadi missing. They started a search and eventually captured Jayadrath. Draupadi was recovered and as punishment for his crime, they shaved Jayadrath’s head, leaving five tufts of hair on his head.

In the thirteenth year, Draupadi stayed at the kingdom of Matsya in disguise like her husbands. She became Shairendhri or hairdresser of queen Sudeshana. The queen’s brother named Kichak was the army commander of the kingdom. He became obsessed with Draupadi. She tried to protect herself from his harassment without any success. Finally, she approached Bhim who was living there in disguise of a chef. Using schemes, Draupadi managed to kill Kichak with the help of Bhim.

After the end of their exile, Pandavas demanded return of their kingdom. A war between Kauravas and Pandavas became foreseeable. Pandavas were willing to compromise but Draupadi demanded revenge from Kauravas. Finally Kurukshetra war started, and continued for eighteen days. Duhshasan, along with other Kauravas was killed. Bhim brought the blood of Duhshasan to Draupadi. Draupadi completed her vow of washing her hair with Duhshasan’s blood before tying her hair.

On the night of the last day of the war, Ashwathama, the son Dronacharya, killed all five sons of Draupadi.  Ashwathama was captured and punished by the Pandavas.

After their victory, Pandavas regained control of their ancestral kingdom of Kuru dynasty. Yudhishthir became the king and Draupadi the queen.

Draupadi and Yudhishthir performed the Ashvamedh Yagya and ruled for thirty-six years. Soon after Krishna left his mortal body, Pandavas decided to renounce the world and travelled towards the Himalaya in the direction of heaven. On the way, it was Draupadi who first collapsed. Bhim asked Yudhishthir about the reason for her demise. Yudhishthir responded that it was due to her strong partiality for Arjun.

Draupadi represents the fiery temperament consistent with the source of her origin. She experienced cruel treatments and was able to overcome her circumstances with intelligence and resilience.

Swami Vivekananda

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Swami Vivekananda was a Sanyasi, Hindu monk, who spread the Hindu philosophical doctrines overseas in the USA and Europe. He advocated working for the welfare of poor and neglected people of society. Using teachings of the Upanishads, he proclaimed to the general masses of India to arise, awake and learn to achieve one’s material and spiritual objectives.  

He was born in Kolkata on 12 January 1863, a day of Hindu festival of Makar Sankranti.  He was named Narendranath Datta at birth. Affectionately he was called Naren. Two more sons and four daughters, two of whom died at an early age, were born to his parents.

His family was renowned for philanthropy, affluence and an independent spirit. His grandfather Durgacharan Datta became a Sanyasi after the birth of his first son. Naren’s father, Vishwanath Datta, was an attorney at the Calcutta High Court. Naren’s mother, Bhuvaneshwari Devi, was a pious Hindu woman who used to tell him stories from the sacred books of Hinduism.

Naren was attracted to spiritualism from an early age and was fascinated by the stories of deities such as Shiva, Ram, Sita, Hanuman and others. He was especially drawn to wandering ascetics and donated to them whenever an opportunity appeared.

Naren was very energetic in his childhood. His mother used to call him a Shiva Gana, “soldier of Shiva”.

At the age of eight, in 1871, Naren was admitted to school. He displayed an extraordinary intelligence at school and could memorise texts easily. He also demonstrated leadership qualities during his childhood by acting kings or commanders while playing games with other children.

His family moved to Raipur in 1877 due to his father’s work. After returning to Kolkata in 1879, he was the only student to receive first division in the Presidency College entrance examination. He studied for a year in the Presidency College and then joined the Scottish Church College. It was there that he first heard of Shree Ramakrishna from the principal of the college, Mr Hastie. He completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1884. He studied works of famous Western philosophers as well as learnt Indian scriptures and history.

In 1880, Naren joined Brahmo Samaj, a society founded by social reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He familiarised himself with the philosophy and practices of Brahmo Samaj, but his quest for spiritual awakening was not satisfied. He was looking for a person who had seen and realised God. He asked Devendranath Tagore, the spiritual leader of Brahmo Samaj, whether he had seen God in person. Devendranath answered that he had not.

About this time Naren’s father suggested him to marry as many proposals were on offer but he refused. He was interested in becoming a wandering monk and householder’s life would have been a barrier to his pursuit.

Naren first met Ramakrishna in 1881. Ramakrishna was a priest at Dakshineshwar Kali Temple. He believed that the statue of Kali is the embodiment of the devine mother Kali. He often experienced ecstasy and had become a famous mystic Guru. Many devotees had become his disciples.

Initially, Naren did not accept Ramakrishna as his spiritual teacher and was sceptical about his philosophy and practices.  Naren believed that Ramakrishna’s ecstasy and spiritual visions were simply hallucinations. However, Ramakrishna was impressed by Naren’s character, intelligence and insight. He was convinced that Naren would advance his philosophy at home and abroad.  It was Ramakrishna who answered to Naren’s query on seeing the God. Ramakrishna told Naren that he had seen the God as he saw him in person now.  On another occasion, Naren was mesmerised by Ramakrishna’s claim of being an incarnation of God, like divine incarnations of Ram and Krishna.

In 1884, Naren’s father suddenly passed away. He left his family in dire financial conditions. The responsibility for looking after the family fell on Naren. He found solace in Ramakrishna and his visits to Dakshineshwar Kali Temple became more frequent. His domestic problems were reduced with the support and guidance of friends and sympathisers.

Gradually, Naren’s interest in realising God grew. He renounced his attachments to family and possessions, and accepted Ramakrishna as his spiritual Guru. In 1885, Ramakrishna developed throat cancer. He was transferred to a garden house in Cassipore, where his disciples took care of him. Some of these disciples had renounced their families and were living as monks of Ramakrishna Order. Ramakrishna asked Naren to take care of his monk disciples after his death. Ramakrishna died on 16 August 1886. Thereafter, the responsibility to maintain the Ramakrishna Order fell on Naren.

With the help of a householder devotee of Ramakrishna, Naren hired a house in Baranagar, which became and remained a monastery of the Ramakrishna Order from 1886 to 1892. Disciples took formal initiation into monkhood and acquired new names. Naren’s monastic names were Vividishananda, Satchidananda and Vivekananda. New names were necessary to erase old identities.  The term Swami is used as a title before a monk’s name. Swamiji is an honorific address for a monk.

Naren had visited Bodh Gaya during his time with Ramakrishna. His love for wandering became very intense and he wanted to see India of ancient glory. As a monk of Ramakrishna Order, Swami Vivekananda travelled to Varanasi, Gajipur, Ayodhya, Vrindavan, Mathura and other sacred places. He also visited North India and sacred places in the Himalayas.  Everywhere, he saw poverty, disease and people living in unhygienic conditions. He blamed priests, moneylenders and landlords for their callous approach to the poor. He was disappointed with the prevailing living conditions of the general population. He noticed false practices being followed in the name of Hindu religion.

Swamiji visited territories ruled by Indian kings, assuming that they would follow rules and edicts for the welfare of the nation. He visited Rajas and Maharajas of Rajputana, West Coast and Southern India. Conditions of general masses were not better there. He held discussions with kings, ministers, priests and social reformers during his travels. He experienced immense hardship and sometimes hungers. He realised the truth in Ramakrishna’s saying that religion was not for hungry stomachs.

He had one encounter with a king, who mocked worshipping idols, the traditional way of Hindu worship. Swamiji saw a portrait of the king’s father. He asked the king’s minister to take down the portrait and spit on it. Everyone witnessing the event was stunned on his fearless call. Then Swamiji explained that the idol was a symbol of the divine, just like the photograph, and should be treated with respect.

In Kanya Kumari, Swamiji was so fascinated by seeing the rock near the shore that he swam to it and meditated there. It is now known as Vivekananda Rock Memorial. In the South, he learnt about the Parliament of Religions, which was being organised in the USA. Many people were impressed by his talent and devotion to India and encouraged him to represent Hinduism in the Parliament of Religions. The king of Khetri, who was blessed with a son thanks to his blessings during a previous meeting, met Swamiji again in the South. He arranged for his trip to America and at the king’s request, Swamiji assumed the name of Swami Vivekananda.  He left for America on 31 May 1883. On the way, he visited many countries including China, Japan, Korea and others Asian countries. He was thrilled to see the effect of Indian civilisation in those countries.

The Parliament of Religions opened on 11 September 1893. Swamiji had to go through many difficulties in gaining entrance to the Parliament of Religions as a delegate representing Hinduism. He opened his speech with an invocation of sacred Mantras dedicated to goddess Saraswati and address to audience as “My sisters and brothers of America”. His address to the audience drew a standing ovation from the delegates of the Parliament. His speech on Hinduism was well received and brought him to the attention of the press, academics and influential people.

Parliament’s President Mr Barrow said, “India, the mother of religions, was represented by Swami Vivekananda, the orange-monk who exercised the most wonderful influence over his audience”. Swamiji attracted widespread attention in the press, which called him the “cyclonic monk from India”. He visited major cities of the USA and delivered lectures on Hindu philosophy. He gathered a large number of devotees and followers and established Vedanta Centres in various cities. He also visited UK, France and other European countries. He met notable contemporay personalities in the USA and Europe.

After over three years, Swamiji returned to India in 1897. A grand reception was held in Chennai in the South. He came to Kolkata where he was recognised for his achievements overseas.  He established the Ramakrishna Mission and Math in Belur, on the western bank of River Ganga.

 He travelled extensively throughout India and worked to help the common people. He stressed the importance of religion but at the same time focussed on performing services for the poor. He used his influence gained overseas towards these activities. He criticised conversion from Hinduism to other religions and stressed on learning new skills rather than changing religion to improve their material condition.

Many of his devotees from the West followed him to India to help him with his mission of social work. Notable among them is Ms Margaret Noble, who came from England and was renamed Nivedita. She devoted her life to the welfare of Indian women. She established schools for girls. Mr and Mrs Sevier established a Ramakrishna Mission monastry at Mayavati in the Himalayas. Mr Goodwin was a companion of Swamiji. He recorded Swamiji’s speeches and teachings, which later became available as books and publications .

At the request of his western devotees, Swamiji left for Europe and America a second time in June 1899. He visited his old friends in Europe and USA, as well the Vedanta Centres established there. He delivered a number of public lectures. He returned to India by December 1900.

He wrotes books and commentries on Yoga and Vedanta Sutra. His teachings were based on Vedantas, also known as Upanishads. He advocated Advaita Vedanta, the philosophy advanced by Adi Shankaracharya. Ramakrishna united his devotion to goddess Kali with the Advaita Philosophy. A well known quote ascribed to Ramakrishna is that “All religions lead to a single supreme God”. Swami Vivekanand strived to implement his theory into practice.

Swamiji worked long hours for the welfare of common people. He delivered religious discourse as well worked to spread the teachings of Ramakrishna Mission, highlighting the importance of serving the poor people. His relentless work ethic had a debilitating effect on his health. He was suffering from asthma and diabetes. Swamiji died on 4 July 1902 at the age of 39 years.

Swami Vivekananda was and is an inspiration for Indians as well as for people of Indian origin overseas. His philanthropical work continues through the Ramakrishna Mission. His birthday is celebrated as Indian Youth Day.

Devanampriya Priyadarshi Ashok

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Chandragupta Maurya established the Maurya dynasty, and ruled the vast empire of Indian subcontinent for twenty-four years from its capital Pataliputra, now known as Patna. His son Bindusar became king after Chandragupta retired from kingship, and reigned for the next twenty-eight years. During his rule, Bindusar maintained his hold over the empire established by his father. Bindusar’s son Ashok was born in 304BCE. He became king after his father and expanded the empire initially by conquest through war and violence, and later by Dharma-Vijay, moral conquest.

Inscriptions on rocks, pillars and cave surfaces etched during Ashok’s reign are the original sources of information about his administration. They were edicts issued by Ashok as a means of direct communications to his subjects and mostly referred to his later life activities.

Sri Lankan texts the Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa and Divyavadana, which comprised Ashokavadana, and Indian Puranas, are another ancient sources of information relating to Ashok that have become a part of Buddhists and Hindu religious traditions respectively. They contain information relating to Ashok’s early life too.

Travel diaries of Chinese travellers Fa-Hien and Yuan Chwang also referred to monuments and structures that were ascribed to Ashok. In addition, now numerous books on Ashok are available including a well-regarded one by Radhakumud Mookerji that contains the details of rock, pillar and cave inscriptions.

Bindusar had sixteen wives including the queen Subhadrangi and one hundred and one sons; only three of them are named in texts. Subhadrangi was a daughter of a Brahmin from Champa, a region east of Patna around Munger. A fortune-teller had told her father in her childhood that she was destined to become a queen. When she grew up, her father brought Subhadrangi to king Bindusar, who married her and made her the queen. Subhadrangi gave birth to Ashok and another son Tisya. Susima was Bindusar’s eldest son born to another wife.

Bindusar disliked Ashok from his childhood and preferred Susima to become his heir.  Ashok was bold in personality and was liked by ministers, preceptors and elders of the community. He was educated along with other princes. After their formal training, a competition was organised to select a suitable heir to the throne based on merit. An Ajivika saint was appointed to evaluate the participants’ performance and consequently to declare the winner. Ajivika was a religious offshoot of traditional Vedic religion like Jainism and Buddhism at that time. The saint agreed on the condition that he would not explicitly name the person but would describe the attributes that related to the successful candidate.

All princes were invited to participate in the contest. Ashok was walking along a road on the way to the venue of contest. A minister named Radhagupta was also travelling to the same venue on elephant. The minister offered a lift to Ashok and both arrived at the venue together. When the contest was over, the evaluator informed the king his decision in code words, without naming a person, but otherwise clearly indicating Ashok as the most deserving candidate. Bindusar was not happy with this outcome and wished to keep Ashok away from the capital to deny him any chance of becoming the heir.

Sometime later, a rebellion took place in Taxila against the central rule. Bindusar sent Ashok to Taxila to suppress the revolt. After his success in quelling the uprising, Ashok was transferred to Ujjain as a governor of the region. Again the rebels revolted in Taxila and Susima was sent to suppress the insurgents.

While both Susima and Ashok were away, Bindusar fell ill and his condition deteriorated beyond recovery. He asked his ministers to recall Susima to Pataliputra and send Ashok to Taxila, where insurgency was still continuing. However, when Ashok heard of the condition of his father, he came to the capital and claimed the throne before Bindusar left his mortal body.

Ashok’s accession to the throne was followed by a war between Susima and Ashok that continued for four years. In the end, Susima was killed and Ashok emerged victorious.

Ashok’s coronation took place in 270BCE. Ministers, especially Radhagupta, played a significant supporting role in Ashok’s success. Radhagupta was a grandson of Chanakya, the preceptor and adviser of Chandragupta Maurya, Ashok’s grandfather. Upon coronation, Ashok assumed two titles: Devanampriya and Priyadarshi, which signified ‘the beloved of the gods’ and ‘of pleasing countenance’ respectively. These titles were signature marks of Ashok on his edicts.

Once, while sitting in his court, Ashok saw a young Buddhist monk passing by in the street.  He called the boy and asked him to sit on a seat suitable for him. The monk sat on the royal throne. On further enquiry, the monk told him that he was seven years old and a son of Susima, his elder brother. The monk also enlightened him with doctrines of Buddhism that impressed Ashok who became a lay Buddhist.

After coronation, Ashok became the ruler of the area expanding from Afghanistan and eastern part of Iran in the northwest to Karnataka in the South. Remaining kingdoms of the southern India that included Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputra and Keralaputra were all within the sphere of Ashok’s influence and were friendly states. Only the kingdom of Kaling did not accept his authority. Ashok attacked Kaling to subjugate it. A fierce war ensued that led to utter destruction. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed and many were injured and displaced. Ashok won the war but its’ aftermath had an everlasting effect on him.

According to a legend, Ashok was camping in the battlefield littered with dead and injured bodies. He heard a weeping woman cursing him. On enquiring her reason for anger and grief, the woman challenged him to return a single dead person to life if he considered himself all-powerful. Ashok understood it as a call from the Divine to change his mode of action.

He was already familiar with the teachings of Buddhism. After his victory over Kaling, he started following the precepts of Buddhism deeply. He proclaimed his objective for Dharma Vijay, moral victory replacing victory through violence.  He worked on disseminating the teachings of Buddha and thus helped transform a local religious sect to an international religion.  

Ashok, like his predecessors was tolerant to all religions. Originally, Maurya kings belonged to the Vedic religious tradition, but later they adopted new religions that were becoming popular during their time. Ashok’s grandfather Chandragupta had become a Jain monk in his old age. Bindusar had followed Ajivika tradition. Ashok converted to Buddhism.

During his early reign, sixty thousand Brahmins were regularly offered food from Ashok’s royal kitchen. After his conversion to Buddhism, a similar number of monks started receiving their meals from him. He built cave accommodations for Ajivika saints in Barabar Hills near Gaya in Bihar.

Ancient texts describe Ashok as a great builder. He is ascribed to found two cities. The first is Srinagar, the modern capital of Jammu and Kashmir. He had built in Srinagar five hundred Buddhist monasteries and other edifices, some of which were sanctified for Vedic religion. Srinagar acted as a centre for dissemination of Buddhist teachings in the north and northwest of Indian subcontinent and beyond.

The other city that Ashok established was named Devapatan in Nepal. His daughter Charumati and her husband Devapala chose to settle there, and for them Ashok built nunnery and monastery.

Ashok is believed to have built 84,000 Stupas all over India. There are differing tales about construction of these Stupas. According to one, Ashok asked his Buddhist preceptor,  “How great is the content of Dharma preached by Buddha?” The preceptor replied, “There are 84,000 sections of the Dharma.” Then Ashok said, “I will honour each one of them with a Stupa.”  Stupas contained relics of Buddha’s body, which were retrieved from the original eight Stupas built after his death.

Edicts issued by Ashok and inscribed on rocks and pillars are identified as minor rock edicts, Kalinga rock edicts, rock edicts, pillar edicts, minor pillar edicts, commemorative pillar inscriptions and cave inscriptions. Animal such as lion, elephant, ox and horse, topped the pillar edicts.  Stupas and edicts were spread all over his vast empire. Only few of them are now available as displays in museums.

Ashok’s edicts contained proclamations such as abolition of sacrificial slaughter of animals, arranging animal fights for entertainment, feasting on meat, tours of pleasure accompanied by hunting, and war and conquest. Edicts also included provision of public works such as construction of hospitals for human and animals, wells and trees along the roads, botanical gardens for medicinal plants, arrangements for welfare of women, children and handicapped people and many other decrees.

His administration was mainly based on Kautilya Arthashastra and welfare of subjects was the main objective of his administration. As noted in his edicts, ‘the main conquest is the conquest of Right and not of Might’ was the policy of his empire. He propagated and worked for moral victory.  

Ashok became interested in visiting sacred sites instead of undertaking pleasure trips for hunting animals. He travelled as a pilgrim to Bodhgaya, where Buddha attained enlightenment, and Lumbini where Buddha was born.

Under the patronage of Ashok, the Third Buddhist Council was convened in Pataliputra. It was considered an important event in Buddhist history, with aim to wean out corruption in Sanghas, the Buddhist monastic order. At the conclusion of the Council, Ashok sent missionaries to various regions of the empire and to foreign countries to promote the correct understanding of Buddhism.

Ashok had a number of wives. While in Ujjain, he married Mahadevi, the daughter of a merchant in Vidisha. Their son was Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra. Both son and daughter went to Sri Lanka as a monk and nun respectively, to spread Buddha’s precepts. Sanghmitra brought a branch of the Bodhi-tree that was planted in Sri Lanka.

Padmavati was another wife who bore Ashok a son named Kunal. Asandhimitra and Karuvaki were other queens.  Tishyarakshita was the last queen. She is believed to have made Kunal blind for refusing to agree to her immoral advances.

Ashok’s final days of life were not pleasant. In his old age, he nominated Samprati, Kunal’s son as his successor. This prince, with collusion of corrupt ministers, seized all power and stopped the benedictions to Buddhist monasteries and Sanghas. He also reduced the services and allowances for Ashok, until at last he sent him half an Amalaka, a variety of myrobalan fruit, on an earthen plate.

On receiving this, Ashok remarked in sadness to his courtiers that from the lordship of entire Jambudwip, he had sunk to that of a half fruit. Jambudwip was the ancient name of India.

Ashok died in 232BCE at the age of 72 years. The extent of his empire and works remain a standard for subsequent kings and ruling dynasties of India. Modern India has adopted many of its symbols and ideals from Ashok’s period. For example, the lion capital facing all four directions, on top of Sarnath pillar edict is the national emblem of modern India. The wheel in the centre of the Indian flag is also taken from the same lion capital. Ashok’s rule continued for thirty-seven years and his legacy remains a guiding post for good governance for India and other countries.

Devi Ahilyabai Holkar

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Maharani Ahilyabai was the ruler of Malwa kingdom in India from 1767 to 1795. She was a great builder and a patron of religious and welfare institutions. She built temples, dharmashalas, rest-houses, ghats or the flights of steps at riverbanks, wells, ponds and other infrastructure for the welfare of her subjects. She ruled her kingdom with compassion, love and fairness.

Ahilya was born in the village named Chaundi in the present day Ahmadnagar district of Maharastra on 31 May 1725. Her father’s name was Mankoji Shinde, who was a village chief.  Her mother was Sushila Shinde. They belonged to the community, which was mostly engaged in farming and sheep rearing trades.

In the early eighteenth century, Maratha forces had expanded their control over a large part of India. In the Maratha administrative structure, Peshwas or Prime Ministers held a very powerful position and in reality, they were the real rulers of the Maratha domain.

Peshwa Baji Rao I ruled from his headquarters at Pune on behalf of Chhatrapati Shahuji, the Maratha king, who was based in Satara. The Subedar or head of a province reported to him. Subedars were responsible for administration of provinces.

Baji Rao I had appointed Malhar Rao Holkar the chief general of the Malwa region, which now constitutes parts of modern Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Malhar Rao eventually became a Subedar. He was the first Maratha ruler of Malwa. Indore was the capital of the region. Indore is the distorted form of Indrapur, the ancient name of the place.

Malhar Rao had a number of wives but had only one son named Khande Rao from his first wife Gautamabai. He loved his son immensely and was conscious of his weaknesses. Khande Rao was not interested in the state’s affairs, and his temperament was not encouraging for an effective future ruler.

Malhar Rao was on a journey to Pune to see Baji Rao I in 1933.  On the way he stopped at village Chaundi. As per the prevailing practice, he stayed at the village chief Mankoji’s house. There, he saw Ahilya, the eight-year-old daughter of Mankoji. He noticed her strength, courage and compassion towards fellow human beings and animals alike.

He learnt about incidents involving her actions. In one instance, the temple priest of the village had barred girls from worshipping at the Shiv temple. She built her own Shivling for girls where they could worship without restrictions. In another incident, she freed a cow, which was separated from her calf and held in a temple’s enclosure. A third incident related to her friend who became a widow soon after her marriage. The practice of child marriage was common during that period. Widows were ostracised from the community. Ahilya objected to this practice and tried her best to help her widow friend.

Malhar Rao realised that the girl demonstrated traits uncommon in a village girl of her age. Appropriate trainings would help her abilities to flourish and would make her a fitting companion for his son. Her attributes would hopefully help him become a worthy ruler.

He approached her parents with a request to allow Ahilya marry his son Khande Rao. Ahilya’s parents agreed and soon the wedding was solemnised in the village. Malhar Rao renamed her Ahilyabai Holkar. After the wedding Ahilyabai came to Indore and started living in the palace.

Ahilyabai was unaccustomed to the palace etiquette. Everything was new to her. She missed her parents, pet animals and friends. Khande Rao was two years older than her. His attitude towards his wife was unfriendly in the beginning.

Malhar Rao had full faith in Ahilyabai’s potential and instructed her chief queen Gautamabai to teach the girl palace customs and other skills that queens required. Gautamabai and another sympathetic queen Harkubai helped Ahilyabai to learn palace practices and to read and write. Ahilyabai also learnt politics, handling of arms and art, culture and religion.

Ahilyabai became familiar with governance and politics as well as with domestic responsibilities. Malhar Rao permitted her to attend and witness court proceedings. She was trained to become helpful in state administration. Her counsel to her husband and even to her father-in-law proved to be beneficial at times.

She gave birth to a son Male Rao in 1745 and a daughter Muktabai in 1748.

In 1754, the Maratha forces laid siege upon the Kumbher Fort, which was under control of Maharaja Surajmal. Khande Rao was inspecting his troops in the open battlefield where he was struck by a cannon ball from the enemy’s army and killed instantaneously.

Ahilyabai decided to commit Sati, a Hindu tradition of voluntarily burning of a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband.   Malhar Rao prevented her from committing Sati. In those times, it was wrongly thought that a woman’s life had no value in society, if she did not have a man to take care of her. The practice of Sati is now banned in India.

In 1761, the Maratha army was defeated in the Third Battle of Panipat. Malhar Rao survived the battle but felt greatly humiliated.  He died in 1766. After his death, Malhar Rao’s grandson and Khande Rao’s only son Male Rao became the ruler of Malwa, under the regentship of Ahilyabai. Male Rao was mentally unwell and died of his illness in 1767. 

The deaths of her husband, father-in-law and son in succession devastated Ahilyabai. She was the only person from the Holkar family trained to take over control of administration of the province. She accepted her responsibility to protect and serve her subjects. Ahilyabai appointed her loyal defense aide, Tukoji Holkar, as the chief of army.

Some in Malwa objected to her rule in the province. Their leader conspired with Raghoba Dada of Pune and invited him to take over the reign of Malwa. Raghoba was the uncle of Madhav Rao Peshwa, the fourth Peshwa of Maratha Empire.  He aspired to become a ruler.

Raghoba planned to challenge Ahilyabai and take over rule of the province. Ahilyabai’s spies kept her well informed. As Raghoba marched on towards Malwa, Ahilyabai sent him a message, “Fighting you would not affect me as much as it would affect your prestige if you lose to a woman.”

Ahilyabai also wrote to Madhav Rao seeking permission to look after the administration herself. She sent letters to other Maratha nobles requesting their support and help of their armies. The army of Malwa supported her leadership.

Raghoba reached Ujjain. Ahilyabai set out to meet him. She headed a procession of her entire army, elephants and horses. As she set out on her epic journey, people came out in her support and veneration, to see their queen in all her strength and glory. This expression of love, respect, admiration and loyalty by the common people was acknowledged in Pune.

In December 1767, Madhav Rao Peshwa instructed Raghoba to return and granted permission to Ahilyabai to continue the administration of Malwa. She moved her capital from Indore to Maheshwar, by the banks of the river Narmada. Maheshwar is the modern name of the ancient town of Mahishmati.

The town had been associated with ancient legends relating to Ravan, Arjun Kartyavirya and Parasuram. Here, on the banks of Narmada, Kartyavirya captured Ravan when the later challenged him to a combat. Ravan was released only after Parasuram killed Kartyavirya. 

At the start of her reign, the province of Malwa was not at peace due to the activities of anarchists in its remote regions. Ahilyabai decided to suppress these illegal activities and declared a competition for subduing evil forces in her kingdom. A brave man of ordinary origin Yashwant Rao succeeded in accomplishing her mission. Ahilyabai gave her daughter Muktabai in marriage to Yashwant Rao.

Muktabai had a son from Yashwant Rao named Nathoba for whom Ahilyabai had deep love and whom she considered as her heir. However, Nathoba died of consumption in 1790 and about a year later Yashwant Rao passed away.

Muktabai decided to immolate herself with the dead body of Yashwant Rao. Ahilyabai tried to dissuade her daughter from taking this recourse but Muktabai remained firm in her resolve and committed Sati. This event caused Ahilyabai immense personal grief.

In her role as queen, Ahilyabai ruled Malwa in an enlightened manner. She reinstated those who had opposed her. Ahilyabai held court every day.  She met the public daily and was accessible to anyone who wished to speak to her.

She was religious from her childhood and used to pray at home and temples. Khandowa, a form of Shiv, was her ancestral deity. Shivling was the revered deity of the Holkar family. While dispensing justice, she held a Shivling in her hand, considering that lord Shiv would guide her to the correct judgement.

Ahilyabai was one of the wealthiest rulers in the Maratha Empire. She did not use the kingdom’s riches for her personal pleasures. Rather than residing in a palace, she lived in a humble two-story house.

Ahilyabai was able to grant rights, which even today women struggle for. She abolished laws that forbade widows from owning property and adopting
children.

Among Ahilyabai’s accomplishments was the development of Indore from a small village to a prosperous and beautiful city. She built, temples, forts and roads in Malwa, sponsored festivals and donated to welfare and religious institutions.

During her time, trade grew, and farmers were happy. Art, music and literature blossomed in the province. Maheshwar became a place of literary, musical, artistic and industrial enterprise. She entertained famous Marathi poets from Maharashtra, and patronised Sanskrit scholars.  Craftsmen, sculptors and artists received salaries and honours at her capital. It was indeed an ideal kingdom.

Weavers settled and developed their skills in Maheshwar because of Ahilyabai’s encouragement. She set up a textile mill there. So fine were the Maheshwari weaves that the prosperous officers in the Peshwa courts used to order them to Pune. In current times, Maheshwar continues to be known for its fine cotton and silk cloth, and Maheshwari Sarees.

Outside Malwa, Ahilyabai built dozens of temples, ghats, wells, tanks and rest-houses across an area stretching from the Himalayas to pilgrimage centres in South India.

Among the temples, which Ahilyabai built in all parts of India, two were particularly significant. Their reconstruction gave immense pleasure and satisfaction to millions of Hindus. About a century ago, Somnath and Kashi Vishwanath temples were razed to the ground on a Mughal Emperor’s orders. Both Somnath and Kashi Vishwanath temples housed two of the twelve Jyotirlings of Shiv. Ahilyabai rebuilt both temples near the original sites.

Ahilyabai built Vishnupad Temple at Gaya, a sacred site for offering Tarpan, oblations to ancestors.

 Temples and religious institutions in Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Kanchi, Avanti, Dwarka, Badrinath, Rameshwar and Jagannath Puri and other places received regular charity from Ahilyabai.

She was conscious of dangers posed by activities of European trading companies and advised rulers to be careful of their interference in Indian domestic affairs.

Ahilyabai died on 13 August 1795 at the age of 70. Ahilyabai’s rule is remembered as a golden age in Malwa’s history. After her death, her commander-in-chief and nephew Tukoji Rao Holkar succeeded her. He soon abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kashi Rao Holkar in 1797.

Ahilyabai is venerated as Devi, deity and is addressed by terms Rajmata, Maharani and Punyashlok. Historians have noted how she encouraged all within her kingdom’s boundaries to succeed in their endeavours. 

Annie Besant, a British theosophist and ardent proponent of Indian self rule, wrote about Ahilyabai, “Far and wide the roads were planted with shady trees, and wells were made, and rest-houses for travellers. The poor, the homeless, the orphaned were all helped according to their needs. The Bhils, who had long been the torment of all caravans, were routed from their mountain hideouts and persuaded to settle down as honest farmers. Hindu and Muslim alike revered the famous Queen and prayed for her long life.”

A commemorative stamp was issued in her honour in 1996 by the Indian government. As a tribute to the ruler, Indore’s domestic airport has been named Devi Ahilyabai Holkar Airport. The Indore University too was renamed Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya.

Numerous books have been written and films produced about her life. A TV serial entitled Punyashlok Ahilyabai Holkar has become very popular among viewers.

Hindutva – Hinduness

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

The term Hindutva is formed from the root word Hindu. Initially, the word Hindu denoted the inhabitants of India. Subsequently it became a synonym for the followers of Hinduism, the religion of the Hindus. Hinduism is the distorted translation of the religion of Hindus, which was called Sanatan Dharma or Eternal Way of Living.

Hindutva means the characteristics of Hindus or Hinduness.These characteristics differ according to the sense for which the word Hindu is used i.e. inhabitants of India or followers of Hinduism.

During the foreign occupations, local inhabitants of India were subjected to mistreatment, manipulation and discriminations. Their religion, language and culture were denigrated. Foreign missionaries and campaigners, mostly with the support of administrative institutions, and deceptions, converted people into imported religions.

Using the policy of “divide and rule”, foreign rulers promoted the division of society on the basis of caste, creed, region and sects. That policy served their objectives well but it was detrimental to the welfare of Indians.

Local Indian leaders, educated patriots and social reformers realised the rulers’ machinations and worked to oppose them. They turned to ancient Indian civilisations for inspiration. Ancient Hindus had developed great civilisations, which are described in countless books. The remains of these civilisations have also been uncovered through archaeological explorations.

It was considered relevant to delve into the characteristics of Hindus, who had developed those civilisations, to understand the extent of their accomplishments and interpret them for use in the context of a contemporary nation. Scholars and experts reviewed Indian history and wrote books and articles that suited their purpose. Treatises on Hindutva were also issued from both religious and civilian perspectives.

A prominent writer Chandranath Basu (1844-1910) from Bengal wrote his book in Bengali ‘Hindutva – Hindur Prakrita Itihas’ in 1892. The title is translated as ‘Hindutva – Natural History of Hindus’. It was centred on the Advait Vedant philosophical aspects of Hinduism.

It combined a variety of traditional beliefs and practices under a common group. He expounded the greatness of Hindu religion and its tradition in an attempt to discourage the people from conversion to alien religions.

Another major proponent of the concept of Hindutva was Vinayak Damodar Savarkar. He expounded his theory of Hindutva in the prevailing context of contemporary nations. It was designed to unite the people of India, using an ancient concept of the nation of Hindus. It is his notion of Hindutva that became a beacon of hope for a large section of nationalists in India during colonial rule.

Savarkar was a freedom fighter, politician and writer. He was born in a village near Nasik in Maharashtra on 28 May 1883. He began his political activities as a high school student and continued to do so at college in Pune.

Due to his spirited political activities, the colonial government implicated him in serious crimes and sentenced him to 50-years imprisonment. He was transported to the Andaman Nicobar Islands and imprisoned in the Cellular Jail in July 1911.

He was aware of the political environment of his time and had witnessed religious unrests in various parts of the country. He realised that Hindus were especially depressed. He was familiar with the Vedic tradition and history of Hindu kingdoms, and was dismayed by the status of his contemporary Hindus, who were divided into various castes and sects.

During his incarceration in the cellular jail, he framed the definition of a Hindu in the following Sanskrit couplet.

Aasindhu Sindhu Paryanta, Yasya Bharat Bhumika;

Pitribhuh Punyabhu-shchaiva, Sa Ve Hinduriti Smritah.

“Those for whom Bharat Bhumi, the area from the Sea to Sindhu, is Fatherland and Holy land are known as Hindus.”

In the cellular jail, he did not have access to paper and pencils, but had learnt the technique of inscribing on prison walls with a pointed pebble or thorn, without being detected by authorities. He scribbled his ideas on walls and used to remember them by rote.

In May 1921, Savarkar was transferred to a jail in Ratnagiri, Maharastra. In the prison, he came into contact with other political prisoners who had access to writing materials. Despite being confined and isolated as a revolutionary prisoner, he could manage to get real paper and pencils. 

He expanded his ideas on Hindutva and completed a treatise titled ‘Essentials of Hindutva’ in 1922, in the jail. The text was smuggled out undetected by jail officials and published in 1923.

The book became so popular that well-known Indian leaders of the time including Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and Lala Lajpat Rai hailed it as amongst the most original and scholarly contributions to the Hindu ideology.

In January 1924 Savarkar was released from jail but was confined to Ratnagiri district. He became a prolific writer and wrote a number of books. In 1937 he was unconditionally released from internment in Ratnagiri. He worked to consolidate the Hindu community.

Savarkar became the president of Hindu Mahasabha, a political party. After Indian independence, he continued addressing social and cultural elements of Hindu society until his death in February 1966.

Savarkar’s concept of Hindutva forms the basis of Hindu or Indian nationalism. He was an atheist and pragmatically practiced Hindu philosophy. He differentiated Hindutva from Hinduism. Hinduism as a religion is only a part of Hindutva.

He offered a new direction in understanding the development of the Indian nation in his book on Hindutva. He started his book with a discussion on the importance of a name. A name relates a person, place or thing to their past. The past is the source of inspiration for progress.

Then he defines what is a Hindu. He refers to ancient texts and relates the word Hindu to Sindhu. Sindhu or Indus is the name of a river of the western region of ancient India, now Pakistan. The river Sindhu originates around the Mount Kailash in Tibet and discharges into the Arabian Sea. Another major river named Brahmaputra also originates in the same region. It flows toward the east and finally enters into the Bay of Bengal. Hindu texts highlight Sapta-Sindhu, or seven rivers, which are considered sacred. The term Sindhu also means the Sea in Sanskrit.

Earlier, it was understood that Hindu was a Persian word and Persians referred to the inhabitants of the land beyond river Sindhu by name Hindu.  Savarkar disagreed with the notion of outsiders labelling Hindus. He maintained that the inhabitants of the areas called themselves Hindu relating the word to Sindhu, the rivers and seas that encircled their land.

The term Hindu is the Prakrit pronunciation of the Sanskrit word Sindhu. Common people in ancient India used the Prakrit language for communication. Only educated persons used the Sanskrit language. Even now in some Prakrit expressions, S is pronounced H. Common examples are Keshari to Kehari used for a lion, Saptah to Hapta for a week.  Old Prakrit language has evolved into modern regional languages of India.

This identity of Hindus was further spread by residents of neighbouring countries, local and foreign traders and visitors. The land became known as Hind, Hindustan, Bharat or India. Their religion Sanatan Dharma became popular as Hinduism, the religion of Hindus. Savarkar offered various examples of use of these words in written texts by numerous ancient and medieval writers, poets, and political and social leaders.

Savarkar formulated the concept of Hindutva in the prevailing national and international contexts that contained certain elements:

The first element of the Hindutva is geography.Since the Vedic period, India has distinct geography, physically bounded by seas, rivers and mountains. Its inhabitants regarded the land as their fatherland or the land of ancestors and Punyabhumi or the holy land.

The second element is the population with a common bond of blood. The Indian population has been inter-mixing from ancient times. Indian literature contains numerous stories that describe the union of males and females of different Varna or social statuses.

Anulom and Pratilom marriages were not uncommon. Anulom refers to a male marrying a female of lower social status and Pratilom denotes a female marrying a male of lower social status.

A large number of modern castes demonstrate the existence of common blood. It also applies to mixing and conversion of people from one to another religious beliefs. Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Hindus have been doing so since their beginnings.

The third element is the common culture or Sanskriti.It relates to the Sanskrit language, which has been the means of expression and preservation of all that was the best and worth preserving in the history of the inhabitants. It includes common laws and rites for inhabitants of the land. In the long term, it is identified as civilisation of the people.

Savarkar regarded all inhabitants of India, who followed religions that originated in India, as Hindu. He assumed that they had common blood and common culture and they accepted India as their fatherland and holy land. He expressed concerns about some followers of imported religions. Events of his time had made him believe their loyalty to India divided and not unconditional.

His doctrine of Hindutva deals with social and political matters. Originally, the Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had adopted the Hindutva theory to empower the Hindu community in India. Subsequently, it had modified to make it relevant for all sections of Indian society.

A number of people in India and abroad consider Hindutva to have a sectarian agenda, relating it to the Hindu religion. Political parties criticise RSS and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) for their support of the Hindutva philosophy. BJP is a national political party with policies on many social and national issues aligned with that of RSS.

India has made notable progress in many spheres of life during the BJP rule in recent years. Achievements made by the BJP led government in India have made Hindutva an international topic of discussion.

Conferences such as ‘Dismantling Global Hindutva’ and ‘Hindutva for Global Good’ have been held recently in the USA with the support and collaboration of a number of overseas universities and educational institutions.

Foreign opponents of Hindutva try to emphasise divisions in the Indian society, especially on the basis of religion. Religious differences between Hindus and Muslims had been used as a source of conflict in the past. Groups with vested interests try to activate religious sentiments with intention to achieve their own objectives.

National opponents of Hindutva use it for their political gain in the country. Sometimes, they play into the hands of foreigners who use them as a tool to serve their interests.

Proponents of Hindutva relate it to economic, cultural and social development of India. Hindutva promotes national cohesion, uniformity in social thinking, patriotism and cultural development.

Statements of the RSS chief summarise the arguments of the proponents of Hindutva.  He recently said that Hindus and Muslims were not different and they are descendants of the same ancestors. According to him, Hindutva is a common denominator for all Indians and not related just to a single caste, sect, or identity. RSS considers that the word Hindu expresses Indian identity along with the continuity of its spirituality-based traditions and its entire wealth of value system of the country.

It asserts that Hindu is the word applicable to all people of India who call themselves Indian. Hindu is not the name of some sect or denomination. It is not a provincial concept, and it is neither a single caste’s lineage nor the privilege of the speakers of a specific language. It is that psychological common denominator whose vast courtyard cradled human civilisation that honours and encompasses innumerable distinct identities.

The three elements of Savarkar’s Hindutva remain valid for India as well as for other modern nations. Close scrutiny of the system of governance of developed nations confirmed their validity.

Mahatma Gandhi – Satyagrah in Champaran (Part 3)

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 after a 21-year stay in South Africa. His contribution to reducing hardships of Indian residents through Satyagrah and other social works in South Africa had made him an internationally recognised organiser and theorist.

On his arrival at Mumbai, political leaders, eminent citizens and acquaintances organised a grand welcome party in Gandhi’s honour. He was overwhelmed by the dazzling splendour of his reception in palatial surroundings.

Gujarati community organised another welcome party. Speakers spoke in English but Gandhi spoke in Gujarati, noting it as a protest against the use of English in a Gujarati gathering.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale summoned Gandhi to see him in Pune. He was a senior leader of Indian National Congress and had founded ‘Servants of India Society’, which focussed on expansion of educating the Indian population and other related social issues.

He had visited South Africa in 1912 and familiarised himself with Gandhi’s works. He prompted Gandhi to return to India and devote his energy to the service of his motherland. Gandhi visited Gokhale in Pune and also met the members of the Servants of India Society. He was impressed by their work. Gokhale wished him to work on national issues.

In big cities the public knew Gandhi through his contacts but the great majority of the population in India was unaware of his achievements and activities in South Africa. Gandhi needed to understand India, its people, their conditions and its environs. Gandhi wished to set up an Ashram that could serve as his base, and would accommodate his colleagues who came from the Phoenix settlement in South Africa.

Gokhale instructed Gandhi to spend his first year familiarising India with his ears open and mouth shut. To free him from the financial burden, Gokhale offered to cover the expenses of his Ashram, through accounts of the Servants of India Society. Gandhi accepted the offer.

Members of the Phoenix settlement were temporarily staying at Shantiniketan. Gandhi went to Shantiniketan to see his colleagues. There he met the teachers and students of Shantiniketan, and its founder poet Ravindranath Tagore. Gandhi suggested some self-help tips to students and staff members, to manage their accommodation and kitchen. His goal was to make them less reliant on servants, and on creating a sense of pride in their own physical work. His ideas were accepted and implemented by the school management.

Gandhi wished to stay at Shantiniketan for some time but he received the news of Gokhale’s death in February 2015. He travelled to Pune and attended Gokhale’s Shraddha ceremony.

From Pune, Gandhi went to Rangoon, Burma, breaking his journey at Kolkata. Gandhi used to travel in third class. His experienced the hardship of third class travel that made him aware of difficulties the masses in India endured during their daily travels.

On his return from Burma, Gandhi attended the Kumbh Mela at Hardwar, and also visited Hrishikesh. At the Kumbh Mela, he met sages, Sanyasis and pilgrims, and had discussions with them on social and religious topics.

In May 1915, Gandhi established his Satyagrah Ashram in Kochrab bungalow at Ahmedabad. A code of conducts and rules was agreed upon with other members of the team. In the beginning, about twenty-five men and women lived at the Ashram.

A few months after the Ashram was set up, Gandhi received a letter from a reputable person with request to accommodate a Dalit family at the Ashram. Gandhi admitted the family of three to the Ashram after discussion with other residents. Neighbours as well supporters of the Ashram resented the admission of the Dalit family. Monetary help was stopped. The situation became so dire, that there was no fund to support the Ashram. At this stage, an unknown person delivered to Gandhi Rs13000, which was enough for a whole year.

The Satyagrah Ashram was later shifted to a new location on the banks of River Sabarmati in June 1917.

Gandhi travelled across India and witnessed the abject poverty of masses in villages, towns and cities. He noticed unhygienic environments in residential areas and at religious sites, the mistreatment of deprived populations, and other malpractices.

In February 1916, Gandhi attended the opening ceremony of Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi. Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya had founded the University. Rajas and Maharajas of princely states, renowned businessmen, social and political leaders, teachers, students and the Viceroy of India attended the event.

Gandhi delivered his first public address in India at this ceremony. He spoke in English and noted, “It is a matter of deep humiliation and shame for us, that I am compelled this evening to address my countrymen in a language that is foreign to me.”

He was appalled by the opulence displayed by monarchs and high officials through their attires and jewelleries. Addressing the richly adorned noblemen he said, “There is no salvation for India unless you strip yourselves of this jewellery and hold it in trust for your countrymen.” Many princes walked out.

He also spoke on unhygienic conditions in and around the cities and sacred sites and on other issues that were demeaning Indian society.

Audiences were not used to listening to such introspection.  After the event at Varanasi, Indians began to hear more about the opinion of a courageous person who lived like a poor man in an Ashram as a saint, and defended the poor.

Gandhi started his first Satyagrah in India in Champaran, Bihar in 1917. It started thanks to the persistent effort of Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo farmer from Champaran. Farmers in the region were forced by British indigo planters to grow indigo on 15% of their land. The planters appropriated the whole crop as rent. Farmers were dismayed by the system and their pleas to authorities had not produced any relief.

During the Congress session at Lucknow in December 1916, Shukla met Gandhi and sought his support for indigo farmers. He requested Gandhi to come to Champaran and see the extent of exploitation that the farmers were subjected to. Shukla followed Gandhi to Kanpur, his Ashram in Ahmedabad and Kolkata until he agreed to visit Champaran.

In early 1917, Gandhi was in Kolkata. Shukla met him there and insisted on his trip to Champaran. Gandhi agreed. They departed Kolkata and arrived at Patna by train. Shukla led Gandhi to the house of a lawyer in Patna, Rajendra Prasad, who later became the first president of Independent India. Rajendra Prasad was away. Gandhi contacted Mazharul Haq, an old acquaintance whom he had met in London. With his help, Gandhi arranged his onward journey and arrived at Muzaffarpur on 15th April midnight.

JB Kripalani, a professor at the Arts College Muzaffarpur met him at the railway station. Gandhi had met Kripalani earlier at Shantiniketan.  He wanted to collect information about the situation of indigo farmers from more reliable sources.

The news of Gandhi’s arrival at Muzaffarpur spread quickly and farmers from Champaran and Muzaffarpur started gathering to see him. Lawyers who had been dealing with indigo cases in courts called on to him to brief.

After hearing the farmers’ side of story, Gandhi wished to hear the British planters’ views. He contacted the secretary of British landlords’ association who flatly refused to provide any information.

Gandhi called on the British commissioner of Tirhut Division in which Champaran district lay. The commissioner tried to bully him and instructed him to leave Tirhut. Gandhi did not leave and instead he proceeded to Motihari, the capital of Champaran district. Several lawyers accompanied him. At Motihari railway station, he was greeted by a vast multitude of people.

Next day, when Gandhi was en route to villages on an elephant to investigate the situation, a police superintendent intercepted him and issued a summons to appear in court the next day. Gandhi telegraphed Rajendra Prasad to come with influential friends and wired a full report to the Viceroy. 

The news of Gandhi’s court appearance spread like wildfire in the surrounding regions. The next morning, people flocked around the court. Police were unable to control the crowd without Gandhi’s cooperation. In the court, Gandhi read a statement supporting his actions of civil disobedience and pleaded guilty. The magistrate asked Gandhi to furnish bail for release. Gandhi refused, and the magistrate released him without bail.

Later, the case against Gandhi was withdrawn and civil disobedience triumphed. He was allowed to proceed with his inquiry, which he and his lawyers completed. On his request, an official commission of inquiry into the indigo farmers’ situation was appointed. In the official commission, Gandhi was the sole representative of the farmers.

The official commission found evidences of excess rents charged by the British planters. They were ordered to pay back the excess rent to farmers. The farmers felt empowered and became bold. Within a few years, British planters abandoned their estates, which were reverted to farmers. Indigo farming disappeared.

Gandhi stayed in Champaran for seven months uninterrupted during his first visit, and later visited a number of times. He started schools, primary health care centres and other programs to help the local communities. He tried to teach the local population self-reliance.

The success of his experiment in Champaran greatly enhanced Gandhi’s reputation in India. While he was still busy with many projects in Champaran, he received an urgent request from textile workers of Ahmedabad. They had a dispute with mill-owners for better pay and working conditions. Gandhi learnt the demands of workers and the mill-owners’ position on the issue, and proposed arbitration for resolution of the dispute.  The mill-owners refused arbitration.

Gandhi asked workers to go on strike, provided they took a pledge to remain non-violent. They agreed but soon many were on the verge of starvation. Gandhi sensed that workers might break the pledge. He declared that he would not touch food until a settlement had been reached. His fast had a moral effect on the workers as well as on mill-owners. At the end of the third day of the fasting, both parties agreed to arbitration to resolve the dispute.

After the textile industry’s dispute, Gandhi was approached to interfere in the agrarian dispute in Kheda district of Gujarat. Farmers were on the verge of starvation but the Government was demanding to pay tax as usual. In March 1918, Gandhi advised farmers to resort to Satyagrah. He persuaded all the farmers, rich and poor to take a pledge not to pay any tax until those who could not pay were granted remission. This campaign continued for four months, until the Government suspended tax collection for poor farmers.

During the Kheda campaign, Viceroy Chemsford had convened a war Conference to enlist support of Indian leaders for the First World War.  Gandhi was invited to the conference and he agreed to support the war effort. During his campaign for recruiting soldiers in July 1918, he said, “If we want to become free from reproach of cowardliness, we should learn the use of arms. We should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is the ability to bear arms and to use them.”

Gandhi’s readiness to recruit for the British war had been a matter of debate. His campaign did not find popular support and failed.

During the process of recruiting, Gandhi suffered from dysentery. He fasted and refused medicine and injection. His illness became so serious that he felt sure he would die. A medical practitioner suggested an ice treatment, which helped. He advised him to take eggs, which Gandhi refused.

Doctors advised him to take milk, to which he reminded them of his vow of not taking milk. He had stopped taking milk due to the cruel manner of milking cows and buffaloes. At this moment his wife Kasturba interjected, “You cannot have any objection to goat milk.” Gandhi wished to live and agreed to take goat milk. Gandhi later wrote that it was a breach of his pledge, and this act had always bothered him.

Gandhi’s illness could not keep him away from action for long, as the British government reneged from their promises to India after the First World War.