hinduguru1651 – Page 3 – Pandit Awadhesh Sharma

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Shivaji is revered as a national hero in India who opposed the tyranny of autocratic rulers during the seventeenth century. He embodied the valour of Samrat Chandragupta and strategies of his mentor Chanakya of ancient India. Shivaji established an independent Maratha kingdom with its capital at Raigad in Maharashtra.

Shivaji’s grandfather Maloji was an influential general of Ahmadnagar kingdom. He was granted a fiefdom over an area around modern Pune that included the Shivner fort. Shivaji’s father Shahaji followed his father in the service of Ahmadnagar.

Shivaji’s mother Jijabai was the daughter of a wealthy landowner and a loyal noble of Ahmadnagar, Lakhoji. Shahaji and Jijabai were married at an early age and had a son named Sambhaji.

After collapse of Ahmadnagar, Shahaji joined the army of Adilshah, the king of Bijapur. Adilshah reaffirmed his fiefdom over the area granted to his father by Ahmadnagar.

Shahaji fought against Mughals during their attack on the Bijapur kingdom around the area under his control. When the situation became indefensible, he moved to the capital Bijapur, leaving behind his pregnant wife Jijabai in the Shivner fort, which was maintained by his loyal retainers.

Jijabai was a religious woman and worshipped goddess Shivai in the temple located in the fort. When her son was born, she named him Shivaji in expectation of getting divine protection for her son. Shivaji was born in the Shivner fort on 19^th February 1630. Some sources mention different dates of birth.

Shivaji spent his childhood away from his father in the Shivner fort where his mother was solely responsible for his upbringing. Both mother and son lived in constant fear of arrest by marauding Mughal forces.

Jijabai was familiar with the stories from ancient Indian texts such as the Ramayan, Mahabharat and others. She used to recount inspiring stories from these texts to child Shivaji infusing in him a sense of hope. He learnt about the deeds of ageless heroes, their courage, and the inevitability of victory of virtue over evils.

Mughal forces were always in search of Jijabai and Shivaji’s whereabouts, to arrest and use them as hostages to demand Shahaji’s surrender. They succeeded in capturing Jijabai but Shivaji escaped with the help of loyal servants. He lived under his retainers’ protection in hiding among his sympathisers.

During this period Shivaji came in contact with many residents of his fiefdom who had been expelled from their homes and were living in forests and hills due to fear of enemy soldiers.

After a protracted conflict between Mughals and Adilshah, a peace treaty was signed between them. The treaty allowed Shahaji’s fief to remain inside the Bijapur kingdom. Shivaji was united with his mother. Shahaji brought Shivaji and Jijabai to Bijapur. He hoped to engage Shivaji in the service of Adilshah.

Shahaji took Shivaji to Adilshah’s court to pay respect to the king and familiarise his son with the court’s etiquette. Shivaji was briefed about approaching and saluting the monarch. When Shivaji was presented before Adilshah, he offered his respect by placing joined palms near his chin as he had seen people in his region greet their elders. The king and courtiers took offence. His father could not sway Shivaji to follow the Islamic court manners.

While living in Bijapur, Shivaji noticed a cow being dragged away by a butcher for slaughtering. He objected to such treatment of cows, which were considered sacred by local Indians. He organised a public protest against cow-slaughter.

Shahaji felt his own position threatened by Shivaji’s behaviour and actions. He came to believe that Shivaji’s temperament was not conducive to servicing the Muslim monarch. He sent his wife Jijabai and son Shivaji back to his ancestral estate. He appointed Dadaji Kondadev, a learned scholar as Shivaji’s tutor and steward.

Pune was the main village of Shivaji’s ancestral domain. When the last Mughal forces had passed that way, their commander ordered all the walls in the village to be destroyed. The land was flattened, the foundations of houses were tilled with ploughs harnessed with asses and an iron rod was planted in the village centre.

When Dadaji arrived at that place with Shivaji and Jijabai, he dug up the iron rod and threw it away. He had the site tilled with white oxen drawing a plough made of pure gold. Consecrated water was sprinkled on the land to purify it. Dadaji built a mansion for Shivaji and his mother on the banks of the River Muta. It was named Rang Mahal, the colourful palace. Old residents of the village were invited to settle nearby. In time, Pune became a prosperous town.

Dadaji loved Shivaji as his son. He taught him strategies of war, and practical skills including horse riding, using arms and war games, considered necessary for protection of his subjects. He also taught him the art of administration.

Shivaji met saints Ramdas and Tukaram, who were well known for their spirituality during this period. Their teachings influenced Shivaji in understanding his role in protecting his people, religion and motherland. Shivaji visited the surrounding hills and forests and became familiar with the local topography, and traditions and aspirations of local people.

Shivaji came to realise that powerful foreigners with strange traditions subjugated the leaderless local population and violated their customs and religion. He decided that the foreigners’ dominance had to be opposed and destroyed. This could be achieved through a united use of force and strategy.

He organised the local hills men and indoctrinated them with the idea of freedom from foreign occupants of their region. He trained them and created a fighting force, which was small in number but very mobile and dedicated to his cause.

Shivaji started his career of conquest at an early age by capturing outlying forts of Bijapur kingdom. He initially conquered the fort of Torna and thereafter, forts in Kondana and Purandar without using force, but with the use of stratagem.

After Dadaji’s death, he took full control of his father’s estate. Later he attacked and took possession of Kalyan in the Konkan region. Adilshah became irritated by Shivaji’s actions. He imprisoned Shahaji, assuming his connivance with his son’s actions. Shivaji approached the Mughal viceroy of the region and with his influence had Shahaji released from prison. For next six years, Shivaji consolidated his possessions.

Shivaji resumed his conquest in 1656, and adopting different strategies subdued powerful feudal lords and captured forts belonging to Bijapur. The monarch was annoyed at his losses to Shivaji and sent Afzal Khan, a mighty general, to subdue Shivaji.

Afzal Khan was arrogant and disrespectful to local traditions. On his way to start war against Shivaji, he desecrated a number of temples and holy sites.

Shivaji had moved to Pratapgad fort. Afzal Khan surrounded the fort but was unable to defeat him. The battle reached a stalemate. Afzal Khan devised a plan to meet Shivaji in private on the pretext of negotiating an amicable solution. Considering his past behaviours and actions, Shivaji remained suspicious of Afzal Khan’s intentions but consented to meet him on mutually agreed conditions.

Shivaji wore armour beneath his clothes and concealed a metal Baghnakha, tiger claw, and a dagger. Afzal Khan was a physically strong man. When they met, Afzal Khan embraced Shivaji aggressively, held him by the neck and tried to stab him. Shivaji sensed his villainous actions and tore his body with Baghnakha. Afzal Khan was killed and his army was routed.

The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food and other gifts. Shivaji’s forces were rewarded accordingly. Captured women were safely returned to their relatives. Following his success over Afzal Khan, Shivaji captured many other forts and areas of Bijapur kingdom.

Shivaji now directed his attention to liberating the areas under control of Mughals. His officers raided the Mughal territory near Ahmadnagar and Junnar and carried off booty.

Mughal emperor Aurangzeb sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan with a huge army to attack Shivaji. Shaista Khan seized Pune and established his residence at Shivaji’s palace Rang Mahal. Shivaji along with a group of men entered the town in disguise of a wedding party and gained access to the Khan’s compound. There they attacked Shaista Khan. He escaped loosing only three fingers from a sword attack but many of his soldiers were killed.

In retaliation for Shaista Khan’s invasion, Shivaji attacked Surat, a port city with thriving business activities. Many European businesses including Dutch, Portuguese, French and British had their factories and warehouses in Surat. It was a major source of revenue for the Mughals.

Shivaji’s forces carried away a lot of wealth to replenish his depleted treasury.

Aurangzeb was enraged and sent Raja Jai Singh to defeat Shivaji. Jai Singh was persistent and effective in attacking Shivaji’s forces. Shivaji’s position became vulnerable and he consented to sign the Treaty of Purandar. Shivaji agreed to relinquish 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation to the Mughals.

Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit the Mughal court in Agra. He held personal responsibility for his safety. Shivaji had a son named Sambhaji by his first wife Saibai. Shivaji along with his son travelled to Agra. In Agra, he was treated poorly and practically became a prisoner.

He did not lose hope and devised a plan to escape from Agra. He fell ill and did not improve with medicines. He started to send baskets of sweets for distribution among Brahmins and poor for their blessing in the hope of a cure. Initially, sentries routinely inspected the baskets, but later they allowed them to be sent without checking the contents of the baskets. Shivaji and his son escaped from their residence in the sweet baskets, with the help of trusted basket carriers. Travelling through Mathura, Kashi, Gaya, shores of the Bay of Bengal and Central India, Shivaji reached Raigad, the fort under his control.

After Shivaji’s escape, another Mughal commander Jaswant Singh was sent to fight him. However, he became an intermediary between Aurangzeb and Shivaji for negotiation of a peace proposal. Aurangzeb conferred the title of Raja to Shivaji and his son Sambhaji was restored as a Mughal Mansabdar. However, the peace did not last long as Aurangzeb did not stick to the agreed terms.

Shivaji attacked Surat again and also defeated Mughals and Bijapur forces in subsequent battles. He had acquired a large tract of land but he lacked a title of the king.

Shivaji was crowned the king of Maratha territories on 6^th June 1674 at Raigad fort. Priest Ganga Bhatt of Kashi officiated the ritual. After the ceremony, Shivaji bowed before his mother and touched her feet. Shivaji was entitled Chhatrapati, paramount sovereign and Maharaj, the great king. Shivaji’s mother Jijabai was over eighty years of age. She died soon after the crowning ceremony. A second coronation was held on 24 September 1674 to allay any suspicion of bad omen.

Shivaji continued expansion of his kingdom by capturing more territories. He entered into a treaty with Golconda sultanate and jointly opposed the Mughals. Shivaji seized the forts of Vellore and Gingee.

In late March 1680, Shivaji fell ill with fever and dysentery and died on 3^rd April. Shivaji established the Maratha kingdom by carving out areas from powerful monarchs of the time. After Shivaji’s death, his son Sambhaji and then another son Rajaram from his second wife Soyarabai, became king.

A grandson of Shivaji and son of Sambhaji named Shahu ruled the Maratha empire from1707 to 1749. At its peak, the Maratha Empire extended from Tamil Nadu in the south to Peshawar in the north, and Bengal in the east to Arabian Sea in the west.

Shivaji used Marathi, the language of his region, as his court language. He stressed on following Hindu political and courtly traditions. His administration was aligned with the ancient Hindu form of governance. He realised the importance of naval forces and established navy along coastlines of his kingdom.

He was a proud Hindu but was liberal and tolerant to other religions. Shivaji allowed Muslims to practice their religion freely and supported them with endowments.

Shivaji has become an inspiration for modern India. His statues and monuments can be found all over India.

Lakshmibai – Jhansi Ki Rani

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Lakshmibai, Jhansi Ki Rani or the queen of Jhansi, was one of the main leaders of The First War of Indian Independence during 1857-58. Her childhood name was Manikarnika. She was fondly called Manu. She was born on 19 November 1828 in Varanasi. Her father was Moropant Tambe and her mother Bhagirathi Sapre. Her mother died when she was two years old.

When Peshwa Bajirao ΙΙ was exiled by the British to Bithur near Kanpur in 1817, Moropant’s father Balwant Rao accompanied Chimmanji Appa, the younger brother of Bajirao ΙΙ, to Varanasi as an adviser.

Moropant grew up in Varanasi and took over his father’s position as an adviser to Chimmanji Appa. In 1832, Chimmanji Appa died and subsequently Moropant, along with Manu, moved to Bithur. Bithur had a large Maharastrian community, the followers of the Peshwa. Moropant belonged to the Brahmin caste. He was engaged to take care of temples, shrines and religious activities.

Manu spent her childhood in Bithur. Unlike many girls of her time, Manu got an education. She learnt to read and write, studied Sanskrit and some Persian, which was the court language of the time. She was outspoken and of independent mind. Since she had lost her mother, she did not have the conventional upbringing of a girl. Moropant was liberal in his thinking and did not impose restrictions that were normally considered typical for girls at that time.

Tales are told about Manu’s friendship with Nana Sahib, the chosen heir of the Peshwa, and with Tantya Tope. Tantya, a young man with great interest in wrestling, was in the service of the Peshwa. They rode together, practiced sword fencing and war games. Their childhood connection played an important role during their later life. Manu became an accomplished horse rider and learnt how to use arms.

As time passed, Manu became a teenager. Girls were married at an early age and Moropant was concerned about Manu’s marriage. At this stage, an opportunity appeared and Manu was chosen to marry Gangadhar Rao, the king of Jhansi.

Jhansi is a city in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It lies in the region of Bundelkhand, which is divided between Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The region is named after Bundel clans who controlled it during the medieval period.

According to a legend, King Virsingh Dev of Orchha gave Jhansi its name. He had grown old and was loosing his eyesight. When he looked at the settlement from Datia, a nearby fort, he said all he could see was Jhain-si (like a mist). His description of the place became the popular name of the town.

During the reign of Aurangzeb, Chhatrasal, the chief of Bundels, led a revolt against the Mughals and conquered a large tract of land. He established his own kingdom, which he ruled from 1675 to 1731. In 1729, with the help of Maratha leader Peshwa Bajirao Ι, he defeated the Nawab of Farrukhabad, Mohammad Khan Bangash, who had attacked his kingdom. As a mark of gratitude for his assistance, Chhatrasal gave one third of his kingdom to Peshwa Bajirao Ι. The part bestowed to Peshwa included the town of Jhansi.

Originally, locally appointed Subedars managed the bequeathed region. Later Subedars were unable to control it. In 1770, one of the best generals, Raghunath Hari Newalkar, was sent from Pune to Jhansi to govern the region. He was a capable administrator and ruled the region for thirty-four years. He abdicated his position in favour of his brother Shivrao Bhau.

In 1803, a treaty was signed between the East India Company and the Marathas. According to the treaty, Shivrao Bhau was acknowledged as an independent ruler of Jhansi. After Shivrao, two more rulers governed the region. The last ruler passed away without an heir.

In 1838, Gangadhar Rao, the youngest son of Shivrao, was chosen by the British East India Company to rule the region.

The British East India Company had entered into India as traders and exploited the prevailing political instability in the country to its benefit. It emerged as an effective master of the large part of the nation after the battle of Plassey in 1757.

The affairs of the Jhansi kingdom were in a mess when Gangadhar Rao took over its reign. With the help of the British, he restored normality in his realm. He had lost his wife, Ramabai and he was anxious that he did not have a son to succeed him. When situation in the kingdom stabilised, he started his search for a second wife. It was not easy to find a suitable girl of his caste in Jhansi.

Bithur had a large Maharastrian community so a priest was sent there to search a suitable bride. There, the priest met Moropant Tambe and sought his help in accomplishing his mission. Moropant showed him Manu’s horoscope. The priest inspected the horoscope and remarked that according to the horoscope the girl was destined to become a queen. Not just that, she was destined to bring immortal fame to her husband’s family. She would be a suitable wife for the king.

Later a meeting was arranged for the priest with Manu in the presence of Moropant at the Peshwa’s court in Bithur. The priest was impressed with Manu and obtained her and Moropant’s consent for her wedding with the king.

The priest returned to Jhansi and submitted the proposal to the king for his consideration to wed Manu. Gangadhar Rao consented. An engagement ceremony was held in Bithur with royal pomp and rituals. For the wedding, Manu was brought to Jhansi where the king provided a number of female attendants of her age to serve her. These girls proved to be of a similar temperament to that of Manu and played important roles during later events in her life.

Wedding rituals were performed to solemnise the marriage of Manu with Gangadhar Rao in 1842. During the wedding, Manu shocked all present when she called out in a ringing voice, “Panditji, make sure the knot is tied tightly.” Manu was fourteen years old whilst the king was a middle-aged person. Manu’s name was changed to Lakshmibai.

Soon after the wedding, Gangadhar Rao invited Lakshmibai’s father to Jhansi to settle and arranged a stipend for him. Moropant built a Krishna temple there and maintained it. He was thirty-two years old at this stage and remarried to Chimabai, who was just a few months older than Lakshmibai. It was Chimabai’s grandson Chintamani Tambe who provided much of the information about Lakshmibai’s personal characteristics to biographers. He had heard about the queen, from his grandmother.

The king and queen led a peaceful life for sometime after the wedding. They spent time enjoying art and culture. On special occasions, they rode elephants and horses in processions. The king had a huge collection of books in his library. Artists were handsomely rewarded. The British granted the king full reign of the kingdom.

However, the king was worried, as the queen had not produced a son. Lord Dalhousie, who was the governor general of India between 1848 and 1856, had formulated a Doctrine of Lapse. According to the doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence of the East India Company as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir.

The queen gave birth in 1851 to a baby boy who was named Damodar Rao. However, the baby passed away when he was only three months old. The king was totally shattered. His health deteriorated and during the Navaratri in 1853, he became seriously ill.

His Newalkar relatives had come to Jhansi during the Navartri celebration. Among them was a five-year-old boy named Anand. The king wished to adopt the boy. With consent of the boy’s father, an adoption ritual was performed in the presence of the British Agent. The adopted boy was named Damodar Rao. Soon after the adoption ceremony, Gangadhar Rao passed away.

After recovering from the shock of her husband’s death, Lakshmibai maintained a strict discipline in her routine that included rising at 4am, worshiping Lord Mahadev and listening to Bhajans. She exercised regularly that included horse riding, sword fencing, wrestling and archery. She trained all her companions and several women from the town in these arts. They became famous as her Durga Dal.

Dalhousie issued an order in February 1854 annexing the kingdom using the Doctrine of Lapse. An English administrator was appointed, and the administration of the kingdom was restructured.

Lakshmibai was granted a pension of 5,000 Rupees per month. She was forced to vacate the Jhansi fort and relocate to the city palace. Intolerable excesses committed by Company officials in their dealing with her tormented Lakshmibai and her subjects.

Discontent against the Company’s rule was simmering in many parts of the country. The introduction of a controversial rifle, Enfield Pritchett, provided the spark for the rebellion. The cartridges used in this rifle were smeared with the fat of cows and pigs. The soldiers had to bite off the rear of the cartridge to put it in the barrel. The biting of such cartridges was abhorrent to both Hindu and Muslim soldiers of the Company.

Soldiers refused to use fat smeared cartridges that subsequently resulted in rebellion against the company’s rule. It started in Bengal and spread into Bihar and Awadh, and then in other provinces.

In Jhansi fort, the Company’s soldiers rebelled and killed their foreign masters. The condition in Jhansi became precarious. In the absence of any functioning government, Lakshmibai, assumed her position as a ruler, the Rani of the kingdom. She stabilised the situation and moved to the fort, which was further reinforced. Life seemed quite normal in Jhansi during the period between September 1857 and February 1858.

The British suspected that the Rani had supported the rebels. After suppressing the revolt in Delhi and Awadh, the Company’s forces surrounded Jhansi and led a siege of the town. The siege continued for two weeks, and during this period heavy battles were fought between the warring forces. The Rani valiantly defended the fort but when she started to loose ground, she decided to leave it. Carrying Damodar on her back the Rani along with her supporters left the fort. Next day she arrived at Kalpi where she met Nana Sahib’s nephew Rao Sahib, Tantya Tope and other leaders who were also fighting against the foreigners.

At Kalpi, a number of battles took place between Indian and Company’s forces. Rani led her army in the battlefield. In one of the battles, Rani Lakshmibai lost her much loved horse named Sarangi. She took another steed named Rajratna.

From Kalpi, Indian forces moved towards Gwalior. Gwalior’s king, a supporter of the British, attacked them, but was defeated. Gwalior’s king fled to Agra. Company officials learnt from him about Gwalior’s situation. They decided to attack the Indian forces in Gwalior.

A decisive battle took place near a fort at Kotah Ki Sarai on 17 June 1858. Lakshmibai, along with her female companion Mandar, was fighting the foreign enemies in the battlefield. During the fight, a bullet struck Mandar ending her life. Rani noticed her companion’s assailant and killed him with her sword. At that moment, a bullet whizzed through the air into her chest. She slumped on her horse. One of her generals named Gul Muhamad caught the horse and brought it to the hut of an ascetic, Baba Ganganath. The Rani breather her last murmuring “Har Har Mahadev”.

Her final rites were completed and her body was cremated near the hut before enemy soldiers arrived. A monument at Gwalior marks the spot where she was cremated. It lies in front of the Phoolbag palace.

Variations in details of Rani’s feats are found in folklores and tales.

Lakshmibai’s story of valour has been told and sung by bards, poets and writers. The poem Jhansi Ki Rani by Subhadra Kumari Chouhan is one of the most recited and loved compositions. Subhash Chandra Bose named the women regiment of Indian National Army, The Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Lakshmibai remains an inspiration for patriots and especially for girls and women.

Acharya Chanakya

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Magadh, a region located in southern Bihar, was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, great kingdoms of ancient India. Bimbisar, a contemporary of Gautam Buddha, established the Haryanka dynasty that ruled Magadha, from its capital Rajgrih. His son king Ajatshatru shifted the capital from Rajgrih to Pataliputra, now known as Patna. Haryanka dynasty was replaced by the Shishunag dynasty, which in turn was replaced by Nand dynasty. The last king of Nand dynasty was Dhananand, whose rule was destroyed by Chanakya, and Maurya dynasty rule was established in Magadh.

Chanakya is a legendary figure in Indian history. Most details of Chanakya’s life are shrouded in myths and legends. Srilankan Buddhist text Mahavamsa and its commentary in Pali language, Jain text Parishishtaparva by Hemachandra, Mudrarakshas, a drama book in Sanskrit by Vishakhdatta and Kashmiri texts Katha Saritsagar and Brihat Kathamanjari are ancient sources that contain tales relating to Chanakya. Subject matters, narratives and legends pertaining to Chanakya in these books are not identical. However, it is unanimously accepted that Chanakya abolished the rule of Nand dynasty and installed Chandragupta Maurya as a king.

Little is known about the early life of Chanakya. Some scholars claim that he was a Brahmin from Kerala who somehow found himself in the court of Dhananand in Pataliputra. Others claim that he was born and educated in Taxila and came to Magadh to participate in philosophical debates. The most popular belief is that Chanakya was born in Magadh and received higher education at Taxila University where he became an Acharya, professor after completing his studies. Taxila, now located in Pakistan, was a great centre of learning around that period.

Consistent with the last version, he was a son of a Brahmin named Chanak of Kotil Gotra. Being a son of Chanak, he was known as Chanakya and being born in Kotil Gotra he was identified as Kautilya. Chanak lived near Pataliputra during the reign of Nand dynasty kings.

Chanakya lost his father at an early age. It is believed that he died due to a conspiracy against him by influential officials. Soon after his father’s death, Chanakya felt insecure and unsettled and left his home for a distant region. He travelled day and night, hungry and thirsty. One night during his travel, he tripped over a rock and fell down in a ditch injuring his face. In the morning, a passer-by old man noticed him lying with a bloodied face. He felt pity for the injured boy. On enquiry, Chanakya told him his name was Vishnugupta to hide his identity.

The old man was an educated person who taught students at a school. He brought Vishnugupta to his home and admitted him in the school as a student. Vishnugupta continued his studies until he finished the school course. Afterwards, Vishnugupta was interseted in continuing his higher study at Taxila University.

The old man had a friend who was a professor at Taxila University at that time. Through his help, Vishnugupta was allowed admission to the university and eventually became qualified in many disciplines including Philosophy, Astronomy, Alchemy, Economics and Social and Political Sciences. After completing his university degree, he became an Acharya of Political Science at the same instituition.

In 326 BCE, the Macedonian king Alexander invaded northwest of India. Without challenging the invader, king Ambhi of Taxila accepted Alexander’s supremacy and surrendered to him. Alexander moved further east and annexed the kingdom of king Porus. King Porus fought valiantly but was deceived by invading forces and captured. Alexander occupied both kingdoms and also nearby regions. Realising potential strong resistance further east, Alexander abandoned his campaign beyond River Vyas in modern day Punjab and turned back.

After occupying Taxila, Alexander changed the curriculum of Taxila University replacing Sanskrit with Macedonian, as a language of communication. Chanakya, as a professor at Taxila, observed the destruction of Indian kingdoms and traditional way of life and realised that disunity among the Indian kings was the main reason for their defeat. It was humiliating for all kings and intellectuals of India.

As an intellectual, Chanakya felt his responsibility to oppose the foreign occupation and assist in bringing that situation to an end. He decided to organise Indian kings who could jointly confront the invaders. He came to Magadh to seek assistance from the king. Magadh was a powerful kingdom at that time. Chanakya familiarised himself with the situation in Magadh and was disappointed with the prevailing condition there. Despite being a powerful kingdom, ordinary people were unhappy due to the misrule of king Dhananand.

At this time, king Dhananand had organised a grand function to honour scholars. Chanakya was invited as a guest to participate in the academic debate. During the program, he observed wastage of resources on royal pleasures and utter disregard for public welfare. Scholars’ views on righteousness and royal responsibilies were snubbed. In the function, he was not only denied the deserving honour but was also humiliated by the king himself with insulting remarks. He was enraged with the king’s behaviour and lost any hope of help from him.

He untied the tuft of hair on the top of his head and declared that he would not tie it again until he had destroyed the rule of Dhananand. Tying the tuft on the head was a symbol of dignity for an educated Brahmin. Such a declaration was almost impossible to materialise by an ordinary person but Chanakya accomplished it with his hard labour, perseverance and stratagems. He also achieved eviction of occupying foreign forces and establishment of a united India under his disciple emperor Chandragupta Maurya.

After the court debacle, Chanakya lived in a cottage outside the capital in Magadh and used to teach students. One day while he was walking, a Kush grass pricked his sole. He had dug up the root of the grass when he was pricked by it on an earlier occasion, but the grass had sprouted again. This time he dug up the roots and was sprinking diluted yogurt over the roots to eradicate it completely. An old man named Shakatar, who was passing by, watched him and queried the reasoning behind his action, which Chanakya explained to him.

Shakatar was an old critic of king Dhananand and was looking for opportunties to destroy his rule. Chanakya introduced himself, and during their conversation, Shakatar told him about the prevailing condition in the kingdom and his desire to remove Dhananand from power. Both had similar objectives and agreed that a new person with royal attributes was required to be appointed a king, replacing Dhananand. Chanakya requested Shakatar for his help in finding such a person.

Shakatar told Chanakya about an incident that happened to him earlier. He was travelling in the bordering region where he saw some boys playing a game of king and subjects. One strong looking boy was playing the role of king and was ordering other boys to perform various tasks. During the play, they saw a leopard coming towards them. The other boys ran away for protection, but the king boy took out his sword, faced the leopard and killed it in a single stroke. On enquiring about his actions, the boy told him that as he was the king, it was his duty to protects his subjects from the leopard.

Shakatar learnt from the boy that his name was Chandragupta. He lived with his mother Mura, who lived in a nearby village and earned her living by making various items from Mayur, peacock feathers.

Chanakya visited the village and met the boy and his mother. He recognised the attributes of a king in the boy and decided to train him to be a future king in preparation for replacing Dhananand. Chanakya requested the mother to hand over Chandragupta’s care and guardianship to him. After initial hesitations, she agreed. Chanakya brought Chandragupta to his Ashram and trained him in archery, politics and other disciplines requisite for a king.

To dislodge Dhananand’s rule, Chanakya needed a fighting force. He minted money through his knowledge of alchemy, and recruited forest dwellers to fight under the leadership of Chandragupta against Dhananand’s army. They attacked Patliputra but were unsucessful.

According to a tale, after their failure both Chanakya and Chandragupta once stopped in disguise to rest near a hut. They overheard a woman in the hut scolding her son for getting his fingers burnt while eating a meal. The son had started eating hot gruel from the centre of the plate. She said to her son, ‘You should start eating from the outer areas and then from the centre. You should not act like Chandragupta who attacked the capital first and was defeated.’ This was a strategic lesson for them.

They decided to attack the kingdom from outlying areas which were easy to conquer. Subsequently they established garrisons to maintain control over conquered areas and made alliances with neighboring kingdoms. Finally they attacked the capital of Magadh and captured it after defeated Nand’s army. Nand dynasty’s rule was abolished. Chanakya installed Chandragupta as a king of Magadh around 322BCE and thus completed his pledge. The king became well-known as Chandragupta Maurya, the originator of Maurya dynasty. Maurya is derived from his mother’s name Mura.

Chanakya was a master of tricks and strategies. A very capable minster of Dhananand known by name Rakshash continued his opposition to Chandragupta’s rule. Chanakya swayed him by his schemes to join Chandragupta. Chanakya also convinced other kings who assisted Chandragupta in defeating Dhananand to accept his authority.

Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nicator, the Greek ruler of occupied regions in India and freed all occupied areas. On Chanakya’s advice, Chandragupta accepted Seleucus’ daughter as his wife to maintain a lasting peace in the region. Chandragupta’s empire extended from Bengal in the east to most of the Indian subcontinent, except for Odisha and southern tip of India. Chanakya remained the main perceptor and adviser of Chandragupta throughout his reign.

Two legends are commonly quoted about Chanakya’s death. According to one, Chandragupta relinquished his power after installing his son Bindusar on the throne and became a Jain monk. He travelled to modern day Karnataka to spend his time in meditation and spiritual discourse. Chanakya accompanied him. Both lived there in a cave, meditated and attained Nirvan using the traditional Jain monks’ way of leaving the mortal world by reducing their daily intake of food.

According to the other legend, after Chandragupta became a Jain monk, Chanakya retained his previous position during king Bindusar’s reign. One minister named Subandhu was jealous of him. He falsely told the king that Chanakya was responsible for the death of his mother, Durdhara, who died during Bindusar’s birth. Bindusar became angry with this revealation. Sensing the king’s anger, Chanakya resigned from his post and decided to end his life through meditation while sitting on a pile of dry cow-dung cake. However, soon Bindusar learnt from an elderly nurse who had witnessed his birth that it was Chanakya who saved his life. Chanakya had arranged to cut open and extract the baby Bindusar from his mother’s womb who had died by accidentally eating poisoned food which was meant for Chandragupta. Chanakya used to add a small amount of poison in the food for Chandragupta to enhance his immunity against food poisoning.

Bindusar repented and unsuccessfully tried to persuade Chanakya to return. Then he ordered Subandhu who was responsible for this predicament to bring Chanakya back. Following the royal order, Subandhu came to the dung-cake heap where Chanakya was meditating, and declared that he was performing a ceremony of respect for him. During this act, he sneakily slipped a burning fire into the dung-cake heap on which Chanakya was sitting. The pile lit up in flames taking with it the great Acharya.

Two popular books titled The Arthshastra and Niti Shastra, also known as Chanakya Niti, are credited to Chanakya. Principles described in these books are as relevant today as they were over 2,300 years ago. An astute strategist and king maker, Chanakya lived a humble life. His ideas of a united India continue to inspire generations of interested and knowledgable Indians.

Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa (Part 2)

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Mohandas Gandhi had established his own legal practice in Rajkot. Its performance was not encouraging. During this period, a Porbandar based partner of Dada Abdulla and Co., an Indian owned company in South Africa, offered him a job. The company had a court case that was pending from sometime. European legal professionals were handling the case. Gandhi was required to assist them. It was anticipated that his services would be needed for not more than a year. Gandhi realised that it would offer him good opportunity to gain valuable experience and to make some savings. He accepted the offer.

In April 1893, twenty-three old Gandhi boarded a ship for South Africa leaving behind his wife and children in India. The ship arrived at Durban by May end. Sheth Abdulla, owner of the company received Gandhi at the port.

A few days after his arrival, Abdulla took him to see the Durban court. Gandhi was wearing his turban. The magistrate asked him to remove the turban. Gandhi declined, as the turban was a symbol of his honour, and left the court. Next day Gandhi wrote to the press about the incident protesting the conduct of the magistrate.

Gandhi learnt from Abdulla about the condition of Indians residing there and also observed their mistreatment by authorities and general white population. Indians were addressed as Coolie or Sami in a derogatory sense.

The case for which Gandhi was hired was filed in a Pretoria court. Gandhi left Durban for Pretoria by train in a first class compartment. About 9pm, the train arrived at Maritzburg. A passenger came into the compartment and seeing Gandhi, left immediately. He returned with the conductor, who asked Gandhi to move to a third class compartment. Gandhi showed him his first class ticket and refused to move. The conductor called the police who forcibly evicted him from the compartment and threw his luggage out. The train left without him.

It was a cold winter night. Gandhi spent the night at the station shivering with cold as his warm clothes were in the luggage, which railway officials had collected and kept separately. He sent a telegram about the incident to the General Manager of the railway, who justified the conduct of the authorities. Next day evening, he caught a train that brought him to Charlestown.

From Charlestown to Johannesburg he had to travel by a stagecoach, as there was no connecting train between them. The coach conductor did not allow Gandhi to sit inside the coach, to which he was entitled. The conductor himself sat inside the coach and forced Gandhi to sit next to the driver, outside. After some time, the conductor wanted to smoke. He came out and wished to sit where Gandhi was sitting. He asked Gandhi to sit at the footboard of the driver. Gandhi felt it intolerable and objected. He told the conductor that he should have been offered a seat inside the coach, but was forced by him to sit near the driver. He would not vacate the current seat but was prepared to sit inside.

The conductor physically attacked Gandhi and tried to push him down from the coach. Some other passengers who felt pity for his condition told the conductor to leave him alone. The conductor left him, but threatened to punish. Gandhi arrived at Standerton, where the coach stopped for the night. Gandhi wrote a letter to the agent of the coach company detailing what had happened to him during the trip. The agent did reply and assured him for his safe onward journey. Next day Gandhi continued his journey in another coach and arrived safely at Johannesburg.

From Johannesburg to Pretoria, Gandhi travelled by train in the first class. During this trip, a guard came to check his ticket and signalled him to move to a third class compartment. Gandhi showed him his first class ticket but the guard was mulish. An Englishman, who was travelling in the same compartment intervened and told the conductor not to harass the innocent passenger. The guard left the compartment cursing them both. Gandhi arrived at Pretoria in the evening.

Next morning Gandhi met Mr Baker, the attorney of Sheth Abdulla. Baker familiarised him with the case. Baker was a staunch Christian. He introduced Gandhi to other Christian friends including Mr Coates.

Christian friends endeavoured to convert Gandhi to Christianity. However, he did not agree with some of its tenets. He read books on major religions and discerned varying degree of pros and cons in all religions. He found his own religion more stimulating.

Coates was friendly to Gandhi and used to go on walks with him. A permit was required for Indians to walk on the footpaths. Gandhi had obtained such a pass. Once he was walking alone on the footpath. A guard on duty nearby saw him and attacked him for walking on the footpath, without even asking for the permit. At that moment Coates was passing through the street. He interfered and saved Gandhi from severe injury. He suggested to Gandhi that he sue the guard and offered to be a witness, however Gandhi did not take any further action on this matter.

Gandhi desired to study the condition of Indians in Pretoria. He called a meeting of Indians with the help of prominent members of the community. He delivered his first public speech addressing issues relating to Indian settlers. His speech focussed on observing truthfulness in business, cultivating sanitary habits in daily life and forgetting difference among various groups. These attributes were required to gain justice and fair treatment. He suggested the formation of an association that could make representations to authorities.

Gandhi was required to assist the barristers fighting the case in the court for Sheth Abdulla. He familiarised himself with all the nuances and prepared briefings. He realised that facts were in favour of Abdulla but the court case could prolong and financially ruin both parties. He believed that an out of court settlement would be the best outcome. He suggested the parties for arbitration to which they agreed. The case was settled out of court.

Gandhi returned to Durban to prepare for his return journey home. During the farewell party he noticed a paragraph in the local paper about a bill on Indian Franchise. No one in the party was aware of it. The bill was against Indians’ interests. If passed, it would have made their lives more miserable. Only Gandhi was capable of understanding the issues and taking any action. All present there requested him to delay his return and help them oppose the impending bill. So he postponed his journey and stayed to prepare petitions against the bill.

Gandhi prepared a submission against the bill with signatures of tens of thousands of people and sent it to the chairman of the legislative assembly. He also submitted it to British minister for colonies and arranged for its distribution in India, South Africa and England. The actions to oppose the bill created a new awareness among the Indian population.

When it became clear that Gandhi had to stay indefinitely, he applied for admission to work as an advocate of the Supreme Court. The racially motivated Law Society opposed his application for admission. Ultimately the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court decided in favour of Gandhi and admitted him as an advocate.

Gandhi became a successful advocate in South Africa. He preferred resolution of cases through arbitration, which was less expensive to clients. Despite this approach, his earnings were enough to maintain a high living standard.

On his advice, Natal Indian Congress was established in 1894 to fight discrimination against Indians. The same year Natal government decided to impose £25 personal tax on indentured Indian labourers, who were helpless and were treated as slaves. Gandhi opposed it through Natal Indian Congress. It was reduced to £3, but it was unjustifiable. Gandhi called it a cruel tax.

In mid 1896, Gandhi left for India to bring his family. In India, he travelled many places, and met political leaders and editors of leading newspapers. He made them aware of condition of Indians in South Africa. Gandhi returned to Durban with his family. On arrival, he was attacked by an angry mob. Authorities suggested him to sue the attackers but he forgave them. His action made him utterly popular.

His struggles against injustice continued and in the process he came in close contact with people living in extremely poor conditions. He decided to reduce his expenses and live a more austere life. He started washing and ironing his own clothes. A white barber refused him a haircut so he began cutting his own hair. He switched over to uncooked food and started observing regular fasting as a method of self-purification.

In 1901, Gandhi decided to return permanently to India. His supporters agreed to let him go on a condition that he would come back if his presence became essential for their cause. Gandhi consented.

He returned to India with his family. He travelled to many regions, met prominent leaders and finally tried to settle in India. At that stage, he received a telegram from South Africa requesting his immediate return. The British minster for colonies was on tour there. Gandhi was required to present Indians’ grievances to the minister. True to his word, Gandhi returned to South Africa and presented a list of injustices against Indians to the minister.

Gandhi started his practice as a barrister in Johannesburg High Court. He earned good money from his legal business. He started publishing a magazine named Indian Opinion in 1904. He met Mr Polak, the deputy editor of a publication. Polak gave Gandhi a book entitled ‘Unto This Last’ written by John Ruskin. The book impressed Gandhi deeply.

Gandhi established a farm in 1904 at Phoenix near Durban. It became a settlement where people associated with the struggle against discrimination of the Indian community could live and work.

In August 1906, Transvaal government introduce an ordinance for all Indians to register their name and always carry a permit with their name and thumbprint. Gandhi objected to the ordinance but finally a compromise was reached with the government. The compromise infuriated some Indians. An annoyed Pathan follower of Gandhi attacked him causing serious injury. Gandhi refused to take action against the attacker and pardoned him.

The government reneged from fulfilling their part of the terms. Gandhi called on his supporters to protest peacefully. He called his method of actions Satyagrah, or Insistence on Truth. He organised collective burning of permits. He went to jail several times. He left the legal profession and devoted his time and energies to public causes.

In his personal life, he experimented in many areas, including food, medicine and self-control. In 1906 he took a vow of Brahmacharya, abstention from sensual relationship.

Herman Kallenbach, an English farmer was impressed by the experience of living and working at Phoenix. He offered Gandhi a large farm near Johannesburg to establish a new colony for participants of Satyagrah. The colony, named Tolstoy Farm, was established in 1910.

During that period, a court in South Africa declared all Indian marriages illegal. Indians opposed this decision and intensified their Satyagrah. Satyagrahis were arrested, tortured and jailed. Gandhi was pained by such treatment and vowed to walk barefoot, wear worker’s dress and eat only once a day as long as £3 personal tax was not removed and oppression did not end. Gandhi led a march of over 6,000 mine workers in Natal in 1913. He was arrested and jailed.

In December 1913, Gandhi was released from jail but his Satyagrah continued.

Finally, an enquiry commission instituted to examine Indians’ grievances accepted their demands. Following the commission’s findings, The Indian Relief Bill was passed. It revoked the personal tax, recognised Indian marriages and removed the permit system for Indians.

In July 1914, Gandhi left South Africa for India via London. After staying in London for sometime he arrived in India on 9^th January 1915. This date is celebrated as Pravasi Bharatiya Divas or the Non-Resident Indian Day to recognise the contribution of the overseas Indian community.

Mahatma Gandhi – Formative Years (Part 1)

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

A pair of glasses used by Mahatma Gandhi was sold at an auction for 260 thousand British Pound in August 2020. Values of his relics have grown significantly with the passage of time.

The full name of Mahatma Gandhi, also known as Rashtra-Pita or Father of the Nation and Bapu or Father, was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born on October 2, 1869 at Porbandar, a coastal town on the western coast of India in modern Gujarat state. Porbandar is located on the national highway route connecting two major pilgrimage sites, Dwarka in the north and Somnath in the south. Dwarka, where Krishna moved from Mathura, is famous for Dwarkadhish temple, whereas Somnath is well known for the Shiva temple, with its long history.

Mohandas was born in a comparatively rich family. His grandfather Uttamchand had risen to be the Diwan or Prime Minister in the principality of Porbandar. After Uttamchand, his son Karamchand and another son Tulsidas held this position. Karamchand was the father of Mohandas.

Mohandas was the fourth and youngest child borne by Putalibai, Karamchand’s fourth wife. Mohandas had two elder brothers named Laxmidas and Karsandas and a sister Raliatben. Laxmidas practiced law in Rajkot and later became a treasury official in the Porbandar government. Karsandas served as a sub-inspector of police in Porbandar.

Putalibai was a devout woman. Her character had left a deep impression on Mohandas’ mind. He was the youngest child in the family and was lovingly called Monia. The family was cultured. Religious and mythological books lined the bookshelves and musical instruments were available to play at home.

Mohandas started his primary school at Porbandar. When he was seven, the family moved to Rajkot, another principality, where Karamchand was appointed to the position of Diwan. He was enrolled at an English school. Once, a British school inspector came to his school and set a spelling test for its students. Mohandas made a mistake in spelling the word ‘kettle’. A schoolteacher noticed his mistake and hinted him to copy it from a neighbour’s slate. Mohandas refused to cheat. When test papers were checked, Mohandas was the only student in the entire class who had made a mistake in the spelling test. He completed his primary and high school education at Rajkot. Academically, he was average in his studies.

Mohandas was excessively shy and timid, and fearful of ghosts and spirits. A maid named Rambha was appointed to care for him at home. She suggested he chant Ramnama or the holy name of Ram to cure his fear from ghosts and spirits. Following her advice, Mohandas chanted Ramnama and experienced relief from fear. His devotion to Ram remained with him throughout his life.

During his school years, he read a book entitled Shravan Pitribhakti Natak. Sometime later, he saw a picture of Shravan carrying his blind parents on both sides of a sling over his shoulders. The devotion of a son to his parents that was displayed in the book and in the picture impressed him immensely.

A play called Raja Harishchandra also captured his heart. The play demonstrated the truthfulness of king Harishchandra who remained faithful to his words despite enduring unbearable hardship to maintain his obligations.

Mohandas was married to Kasturba in 1883 at the age of thirteen. Kasturba was also born in Porbandar and was of a similar age. Mohandas was very protective of his wife and tended to dominate over her during early stage of their married life. Mohandas gradually came to understand the negative effects of child marriage and later worked to eradicate this practice. Kasturba was not formally educated but was highly intelligent. The couple had four sons who survived to adulthood.

A person of bad character befriended Mohandas during his school days. He prompted him to eat meat and smoke tobacco. He also encouraged Mohandas to steal money to pay for these indulgences. At one stage, he planned to commit suicide as he deemed asking permission from elders to do anything of his own choice was insufferable.

Mohandas belonged to a Vaishnav family. Eating meat was a highly objectionable act for the family. Similarly smoking, stealing and thoughts of committing suicide were not acceptable behaviours. Mohandas somehow realised his wrongdoings and repented. In a letter to his father, he described his actions and expressed remorse. His father pardoned him without any criticism.

Karamchand remained ill for some time before his death in 1885. Mohandas used to nurse him during this time regularly. One night, after tending his father, he went to his room to sleep with his wife. Soon he was informed that his father had passed away. Mohandas felt himself guilty of for not being by his father’s side during his last breath. He blamed his intense attraction towards his wife for this lapse.

Mohandas passed his Matriculation examinations in 1887 and was enrolled in the Samaldas College at Bhavnagar for further studies. He found the study difficult and distasteful. After the first term, he returned home to Rajkot.

During this period, a family friend named Mavji Dave visited the family. Mavji was an old friend of Karamchand. He enquired about Mohandas and suggested his mother and brothers sending him to England to study law. This would help him obtain a respectable job on his return to India. Mohandas was delighted with the idea and his brothers agreed. Initially, his mother was against sending her son overseas, mostly on religious grounds. A Jain monk Becharji Swami, who was revered by Putalibai, visited her. He did not object to the idea of sending Mohandas overseas provided he pledged not to violate certain practices. Mohandas took vows to abstain from eating meat, drinking wine and touching a woman inappropriately during his stay in England. His mother subsequently consented to his trip.

Mohandas arrived at Mumbai to board a ship to England. The local community leaders of his caste raised objections to his overseas travel. Mohandas was unwilling to abandon his voyage. These leaders excommunicated him from his caste and issued a decree for those who helped him to pay fines.

Mohandas sailed from Mumbai on 4th September 1888. During the journey, he ate his meals in his cabin and avoided conversing with strangers. He arrived at Southampton and then travelled to London, and stayed in a hotel.

Mohandas had four letters of introductions that included one for Dr PJ Mehta. Mohandas had wired him from Southampton. Dr Mehta came to visit him in his hotel. During their first meeting, Mohandas casually touched Mehta’s hat and by passing his hand over it disturbed the fur. Mehta glared angrily at him and told him about European etiquettes. He said, ‘Do not touch other people’s things; do not ask questions as we usually do in India on first acquaintances; do not talk loudly; never address people as sir whilst speaking to them as we do in India; only servants and subordinates address their masters that way’. These were the first lesson for Mohandas in England.

His initial days in London were miserable, as he was unable to find vegetarian food. He stayed in a hotel in the beginning. On advice from Dr Mehta and other acquaintances, he moved to live with a local family. Living with a family was considered important for familiarising with the local practices and ways of life. During this time, he also found a vegetarian restaurant where he could buy meals of his choice.

Later he rented a unit, where he could cook his own meals. He wished to become a perfect Englishman. He tried to learn to dance, wear fashionable western dresses and play the violin. He came in contact with a vegetarian society and became its office bearer. He read books on vegetarianism in England. He noticed different types of vegetarianism in practice.

One group of vegetarians avoided eating meat but ate fish and egg considering them to be vegetarian items. Another group avoided eating meat and fish but not egg. The third group avoided meat, fish, egg as well as dairy products. Mohandas had discussions with members of the group on the subject. He personally maintained that vows given to his mother should be the guiding post in selecting his vegetarian diet. Accordingly, he avoided meat, egg and fish in his meals.

On one occasion, he came in contact with a lady who helped him in select vegetarian items at a restaurant. She became friendly and later she introduced him to a young relative who lived with her. She intended that he and her relative developed a relationship. Mohandas was married and chose to remain true to the promise he had given to his mother. He informed the lady that he was married and would not establish a relationship with any woman. The lady abandoned her approach, however, she maintained a friendship with him.

The law course in England was not very demanding and Mohandas found ample time for other activities. He chose to complete the London Matriculation, which was considered achievable in short time. He passed the Matriculation examination with commendable marks.

In London, Mohandas came in contact with two Theosophists brothers. They introduced him to ‘The Song Celestial’, an English translation of the Bhagavad Gita, and ‘The Light of Asia’, a poetry book about Buddha, by Sir Edwin Arnold. Mohandas was highly impressed by reading the Gita. He also came in contact with Annie Besant, who later settled in Varanasi, India and established the Central Hindu School, which became the nucleus for Banaras Hindu University.

From London, Mohandas visited France to see an exhibition in Paris. It was an opportunity for him to acquaint himself with the contemporary technical and social developments in Europe.

He passed the law examinations and was called to join the bar on the 10th of June 1891. The next day, he enrolled to the high court and on 12th June, he departed from England for home.

Mohandas landed at Mumbai. There, he learnt from his brother that his mother had died. The news was deliberately withheld from him, to spare him shock in a distant land. It was dreadful news for him. He loved and revered his mother and had hoped to inform her personally of his academic achievements, and adherence to the promises he had made to her.
From Mumbai, he travelled to Rajkot and stayed there with his joint family. During his stay, he taught the children of his brothers and his own son Harilal, who was four years old. He led them to physical exercises and played games with them.

After staying for sometime in Rajkot, he decided to set up a law practice in Mumbai. He stayed in Mumbai for a few months and had little success. He secured only one case, and when he rose to argue for his client in the court, he felt nervous and could not utter a word. Overall, his experience in Mumbai was a disappointment, and he returned to Rajkot and set up his office there.

In Rajkot, he used to secure some jobs that paid him just enough to meet his ends. His older brother Laxmidas, a lawyer in Rajkot, had built high hopes on Mohandas. Laxmidas had been a secretary and adviser to the throne of Porbandar and expected to become the Diwan, as his father and grandfather had been. However, he lost favour with the British Political Agent.

Mohandas had casually met the agent in London. Laxmidas asked Mohandas to meet the agent and seek his favour for him. Mohandas did not like the idea but yielded to his brother’s wishes. The agent was unkind and told Mohandas that Laxmidas could apply through proper channel if he thought he had been wronged. Mohandas persisted but the agent showed him the door. He stayed to argue but agent’s clerk pushed him out forcibly.

Mohandas was shocked by his mistreatment and approached other senior lawyers to seek redress for the agent’s behaviour. They suggested ignoring it as such treatment of young Indian lawyers by British agents was commonplace.

He observed the cruel and selfish approach of British officials as well as of legal professionals. He felt suffocated in this environment. At this juncture, a business in Porbandar offered Mohandas a job in South Africa.