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The terms Shraddha श्रद्धा and Shraddh श्राद्ध are derived from a common root in Sanskrit. The shraddha means devotion or faith, whereas shraddh refers to a ritual, which is performed with devotion and faith after the death of a person.

In Hinduism, shraddh is a part of the last rite of the dead body known as Antyesthi Sanskar or funeral rite. It is assumed that the shraddh helps the departed soul reach its final destination, which depends upon the Karma, a sum of all actions an individual performs while alive on earth.

Socially, the shraddh signifies an expression of gratitude to the deceased by descendants or relatives. It is a universal human practice, approved in religions and civilisations since ancient times. Its format varies depending on the time, place and status of the deceased.

Mortality – According to the Hindu tradition, an alive human is a combination of physical body and soul. The physical body comprises five basic elements that include earth, water, fire, air, and ether. The soul is the mystical component and non-material essence of a person. It is commonly known as the source of consciousness, Jeev or Pran-vayu. When an individual dies, the soul leaves the body to realise the effects of karma.

Death of living things is a universal and inevitable occurrence and no one is immune to it. It is a painful experience for the loved ones left behind and causes them heartbreak and grief. Philosophical interpretations and platitudes such as death is ‘exchanging an old dress with a new one’, ‘liberation of a soul from its body’, ‘birth and death are a fact of life’, etc. generally do not console the griever.

Stirred by a sense of gratitude, the bereaved commonly pay homage and offer charity in the name of the deceased person. The dharma-shastras recommend elaborate rituals, which include prayers for the peace of the deceased and offering of material goods for use by the disembodied soul. These rituals are to be reasonable within the means of the family, to avoid a further increase in hardship following the death of the family member.

In a traditional rural environment in India and in orthodox Hindu families, when it becomes clear that death of the person is imminent, family members and friends gather near the dying individual. They offer Ganga-water and Tulasi leaf in the person’s mouth. Sacred verses from the Gita, the Ramayan or any other preferred texts relevant to the occasion are recited nearby to generate a peaceful and serene environment.

Once death has occurred, the preparation for cremation starts. Cremation of the dead body is done soon after the death, preferably on the same day. The practice varies among different communities and sects. Usually the body is washed and wrapped in a white cloth if the dead person is a man or a widow. If it is a woman whose husband is still alive, her body is dressed as an adorned married woman. Grieving for the deceased is a natural response however, on the death of an extremely old person, it is generally discouraged.

The dead body is carried on a bier made of bamboos and transported to the cremation ground. It is placed on a specially arranged pile of wood, the legs facing south. South is believed to be the region of Yam, the god of death. He is also known as Dharmaraj, responsible for deciding the next stage for the departed soul.

Sandalwood and clarified butter are generously added to the woodpile to accelerate wood combustion. A priest recites Mantras for the occasion. The eldest son or the person authorised to perform the rite, known as fire-donor, walks around the woodpile with the body in an anti-clockwise direction. He carries a pitcher filled with water, which is allowed to trickle during circumambulation symbolically purifying the pyre. Now a days daughters and female relatives also perform the offering of fire and associated rituals.

Following the circumambulation, the fire donor lights the fire near the dead body’s mouth. Once the pyre is ablaze, the performer and closest relatives circumambulate the burning pyre one or more times. The Kapala-kriya or cracking of the skull is the last stage of combustion. The offering of body to the fire is considered to be a sacrifice. In the process, the physical elements of the body are returned to the nature.

Once the body has completely consumed, the fire is extinguished. The ash along with any bone particles is collected and the site is cleansed with water. The collected ash and bone remains are immersed into a river considered sacred such as the Ganga or any other flowing stream or sea, or scattered on a mountaintop or otherwise disbursed, in accordance with wishes of the dead person or family members. This process is called Ashthi Visarajan and must be completed before the tenth day after death.

The dead body is considered polluted. All those who attend the cremation or are exposed to cremation smoke must take a shower or dip themselves into a body of water as soon as possible, following the cremation.

Where electric crematorium is available, the ritual is performed before submitting the corpses to the furnace in a modified form. The process varies on many factors including the place, sect to which the family adhere and the family’s social condition.

Nine days following the death and in some regions from the date of cremation are observed as a mourning period. During this time, the soul is believed to be floating around in limbo. The Pret Khand section of Garud Puran describes the status of the soul in detail during the grieving phase. Some families engage a priest to recite these sections to soothe their grieving.

The fire-donor lives an austere life during this time. He or she offers a Tarpan of water mixed with sesame seed and other items and lights a Diya, an earthen lamp in the name of the deceased every day until the tenth.

On the tenth day, the purification ceremony is performed.  The main performer and other male family members shave their heads, beard, trim their nails and take a ritual bath. Women also perform a ritual bath. These practices are considered cleansing and vary among different groups, sects and regions. The house is cleaned and prepared for the next stage of activities.

Antyesthi Shraddh – Following the cleansing, the shraddh rituals are performed under the supervision of the presiding priest. The shraddh involves Pind-dan, offering of rice balls; Panch-bali, five propitiatory offerings; Pitr-bali, offering to ancestors; and  tarpans, offering of water along with barley, sesame seeds, rice, milk and flowers to deities, sages and ancestors.

On the tenth day, the pind-dan is performed to the deceased. On the eleventh day pitr-bali is offered to ancestors and panch-bali to five different beings that include the cow, the crow, the dog, the deities and the ant. The tarpans are tendered to deities, sages and ancestors. In the name of ancestors, the presiding priest and guests are offered food and donations.

On the twelfth day, pind-dan and tarpans are offered to the deceased, ancestors, deities and sages. In addition, the materials that may be required in the afterlife of the deceased person are donated to the presiding priest. It is believed that charity offered to the priest will help the deceased maintain a dignified next life. Some sects and social groups have questioned and modified this part of the process.

On completion of the religious ritual, a Bhandara or feast is organised. Food is offered to the priests, guests and the poor to mark the completion of the ceremony.

These rituals grant the deceased a status of ancestral deity. He or she becomes a Pitr or ancestral deity and resides with other ancestors in the southern quarter of the sky and is worshipped together with them by his/her family, especially during religious events.

In some families, the shraddh is repeated at the anniversary of the death, which becomes a remembrance day for the descendants. Others perform it every month for the first year and then yearly. In some communities, this day marks a day when the poor and needy are offered food in memory of the dead.

The dharma-shastras, grihya-sutras and pauranic texts have devoted many chapters on the shraddh. The process described in Purans practically follows the Grihya-sutra and Manu and Yagyavalkya smritis. The Purans describe a number of shraddh and recommend sacred places such as the banks of the River Ganga, Prayagraj, Varanasi, Gaya and other selected sites for their performance.

Gaya shraddh – The Garud Puran highly praises the performance of shraddh at Gaya during the pitri-paksh, the dark fortnight in the Vikram Samvat month of Ashwin (September-October). Stories from the Ramayan and the Mahabharat further enhance the importance of shraddh at Gaya.

It is believed that Lord Ram along with his brother Lakshman and wife Sita performed shraddh in Gaya for the salvation of his father. Karna of the Mahabharat performed shraddh at Gaya, after he was refused food in the heaven on the ground that he had never donated food to a deserving person. He subsequently regained his position in the abode of gods and deities.

The pind-dan and tarpan are main rituals at Gaya and hence the shraddh performed there is also called pind-dan. Socially, when both parents have passed away, then performing shraddh at Gaya during the pitri-paksh is considered to be a duty of their progeny.

Gaya is a major pilgrimage site for Hindus, Buddhist and Jains. Especially for Hindus it is believed that ancestors expect their descendants to perform a shraddh for them in Gaya. During the pitri-paksh hundreds of thousands of Hindus from all over the world visit Gaya and perform the shraddh.

Generally, the process of shraddh is supposed to be held at numerous locations in Gaya over a period of a fortnight. However, it has been simplified and can be completed in a single day, to accommodate those who have limited time to perform it.

The one-day shraddh is performed at three locations that include the banks of the Phalgu River, in the courtyard of Vishnupad temple and near the Akshayvat tree. At each spot the performer or Yajman sits on the floor facing south and the priest facing the performer. The performer makes pind-balls of specific materials, which are procured before starting the ritual. The yajman performs the Puja as directed by the priest. The puja includes the offering of pinds and tarpans.

The procedure is repeated at each of the three locations. Pind at each location is also offered to presiding deities Phalgu River, Vishnupad temple and Akshayvat respectively. After the ceremony, the priest is offered Dakshina or remuneration for the service. On returning home, donations in the form of food, cash or feast depending upon the choice of the family are made.

If the performer arrives at Gaya in the morning, then after completing the shraddh one can depart the same evening. A local priest is required for performing the ritual. The priest can be arranged in advance online or though contacts or other relevant agencies.

It is believed that there is no need for further shraddh once it has been completed at Gaya.

Adapted practice – The death related rituals described above have an ancient origin. Many of the procedures have been modified and continue to be attuned to suit modern times and distant locations. Expatriate Hindus experience a social environment, which is quite different from India. Accordingly, they have modified rituals regarding death, cremation and shraddh.

For example, in Australia an old person in normal circumstances dies in a hospital or in an old person’s home. If the dying person or his/her family wish to recite sacred verses then a priest is arranged for recital.

After death, the corpse is stored in a mortuary and an arrangement is made with a funeral company, which provides the cremation facility.

On the cremation day, if the family decides to bring the body home then the dead body is brought home in a coffin and pre-cremation rituals are performed with the help of a priest. The body is then transported to the funeral house where family members and friends gather for a last visitation and goodbye.

Obituaries are read and sacred texts are recited. The pre-cremation ritual is performed. People offer flowers and walk around the coffin. After completing these rituals, the coffin is taken inside to the furnace area and finally delivered into the furnace.

If due to some reason the coffin is not brought home, and is delivered directly to the funeral house, then the rituals stated for home are performed there.

After a day or two, ashes are returned to the family. The shraddh including pind-dan and tarpan are performed at the home on the 11^th or 12^th day. It includes a feast for the family and friends. Some families organise a bhandara at a local temple and make donations to temples or charitable organisations. Usually, the deceased’s family makes the decisions regarding the format of the entire process.

The Kumbh Mela, literally translated as Pitcher Fair or Aquarius Fair, refers to the congregation of pilgrims in Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik on the riverbanks to take a Snan or dip in the rivers on designated auspicious dates during the period from Paush to Phalgun (January – February). It is the largest peaceful gathering of pilgrims in the world attended by people from around the globe.

The Kumbh Mela location in a particular year depends upon the position of planets, Sun and Jupiter in relation to Zodiac constellations. The fair is rotated between Haridwar on the banks of River Ganga, Nasik on the banks of River Godavari, Ujjain on the banks of River Khsipra and Prayagraj at Triveni Sangam, the confluence of three rivers namely Ganga, Yamuna and invisible Saraswati.

The Kumbh Mela lasts several weeks. It begins with the Paush Purnima Snan, and concludes on Maha Shivratri, the day of last important Snan.

Bathing in the rivers is the most important ritual for pilgrims. This can be done every day but certain days are considered more auspicious. The Makar Sankranti is believed to be the most important day for bathing. The largest number of people takes a dip in the waters on this day.

The ceremonial bath is known as Shahi Snan or Royal Bath. It is led by the Naga Sadhus, ascetic warriors, who immerse themselves in the sacred water in a large procession. Other sadhus and the general masses then follow the ritual of bathing.

Traditional Hindus believe that bathing in the sacred rivers on these occasions cleanses the mortals of sins incurred in the past and encourages pursuing a virtuous life in the future.

The most dedicated pilgrims and groups set up their residence on the site to experience the Mela from the beginning to the end. Others visit on the special bathing days. Many devotees stay for a certain period, observing austerity, giving alms and bathing at sunrise every day.

People from almost all sections of the Hindu religion and associated religious organisations attend the Mela. Sadhus from different denominations move in a procession, displaying the diversity of the Hindu ascetic community.

In addition to the bathing, many other religious, cultural, entertainment and social activities are performed during the Mela, promoting a range of ideas, objectives and philosophies.

Devotees sing and chant devotional songs, creating a spiritual ambience. Many guests engage in yoga and meditation techniques to strive for mental and physical wellbeing. Renowned saints and gurus deliver lectures on spiritual and philosophical topics imparting knowledge to the assembled audiences. Charitable organisations offer meals and provide other services free or at nominal costs.

The Kumbh Mela is an annual event, which follows a twelve-year cycle. In the twelfth year, it is known as Maha Kumbh and in the sixth year Ardh Kumbh. This year it is Maha Kumbh.

In 2025, Prayagraj is hosting the Maha Kumbh, which starts on January 13, 2025, with the Paush Purnima Snan, and concludes on February 26, 2025, the Maha Shivratri day. Other important dates for bathing are:
(1) Makar Sankranti (First Shahi Snan), 14 January 2025;
(2) Mauni Amavasya (Second Shahi Snan), 29 January 2025;
(3) Vasant Panchami (Third Shahi Snan), 3 February 2025, and
(4) Maghi Purnima, 12 February 2025.

About 400 million people are expected to participate in the Prayagraj Maha Kumbh Mela. The state government, which has significant experience in organising the Kumbh Mela of previous years, is responsible for orchestrating it also this year. Management and supervision for smooth running of an extensive infrastructure, with attention to ensuring safety and access to hygienic facilities for all attendees is the responsibility of the state administration.

During the Ardh Kumbh Mela in 2019 in Prayagraj, 200 million visitors were recorded, with about 50 million partaking in the ritual bath on the most auspicious day, the Makar Sankranti.

For the 2025 Maha Kumbh Mela, a designated area has been established as a separate administrative district for four months. The total area is divided into 25 sections spread over 40 square kilometres. It comprises accommodation, roads, electricity and water supplies, waste disposal, communication towers and 11 hospitals.

Temporary houses and large tents with suitable facilities are set up to accommodate the visitors. A typical large tent has space for up to 20,000 people to stay. People are expected to bathe in the waters along a 12 kilometre long stretch.

About 20,000 workers are responsible for keeping the area and its more than 150,000 temporary toilets clean. Around 50,000 security personnel are expected to keep the festivities safe.

More than 2,500 cameras, some powered by AI, are installed to scan crowd movement and send density information to four central control rooms, from where officials can quickly deploy personnel to avoid stampedes.

Genesis – It is believed that the Kumbh Mela has a prehistoric origin and relates to the tale of Samudra Manthan, the churning of the ocean, found in Vedic texts. In order to become immortal, Devas, deities and Daityas, demons decided to drink Amrit, ambrosia, which would be obtained from the ocean by its churning. They jointly started the churning and in the process, initially a number of other valuables appeared that were amicably distributed.

In the end, sage Dhanavantri surfaced from the ocean holding a Kumbh or pitcher filled with Amrit. Deities and demons started quarrelling over it. In the meantime, an eagle, the mount of Lord Vishnu, grasped the Kumbh with the goal of transporting it to Vishnu. En route, a part of the Amrit spilled over and fell into the rivers in Prayagraj, Haridwar, Nasik and Ujjain. As people learnt about this event, they started gathering and bathing in the waters of these places to ensure contact with the Amrit. Their assembly eventually resulted in the fair renowned as the Kumbh Mela.

Another reason for the name Kumbh Mela is the astrological position of planets in the zodiac. In Hindu astrology, the Kumbh Rashi stands for the zodiac sign Aquarius, the water carrier in Latin. The Kumbh Mela in Haridwar is held when the planet Jupiter is in the Aquarius constellation. This also leads to the assumption that Haridwar was the location where the initial Kumbh Mela was held.

There is no consensus on when the festival started. Gathering of people and taking a dip in sacred water is described in ancient texts. The Buddhist Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang has mentioned the Hindu bathing rituals at the confluence of the rivers in Prayagraj in 644 CE. According to some scholars, this is the earliest surviving historical account of the Kumbh Mela. Some believe that Adi Shankaracharya started the gathering for philosophical discussion and debate to create consensus on religious topics among various denominations of the Hindus.

Tulasi Das has noted in Ram Charit Manas the gathering at the confluence of three rivers in Prayagraj during the Kumbh Mela.

The Kumbh Mela has been included in the UNESCO’s Representative List of Cultural Heritage of Humanity, which was established in 2008. It aims to record and ensure better protection of important cultural heritage events, skills and knowledge worldwide.

Specific days for bathing during the Kumbh Mela have religious significance, as described in the following sections.

Paush Purnima falls on the full moon day of the bright fortnight in the month of Paush. It is believed that a person who takes a holy bath at pilgrimage places on this auspicious day, donates to the poor and makes offering to the solar deity, the Sun, will be cleansed of their sins and attain moksha following death.

It is also known as Shakambhari Purnima named after Shakambhari, an incarnation of goddess Durga. People worship Goddess Durga and chant mantras to seek her divine blessings. Devotees observe Purnima Vrat, which is believed to bring good luck and remove all obstacles in life.

Makar Sankranti is celebrated on 14 January, marking the beginning of auspicious Uttarayan, the northward movement of the Sun. This occasion marks the transition of the Sun from Sagittarius or Dhanu to Capricorn or Makar in the zodiac. The festival is dedicated to the deity Sun. On this day, the Sun God is especially worshipped and offered prayers.

This festival is celebrated across different regions of India. It is known by varying names, including Makar Sankranti, Lohri, Kite festival, Magh Bihu and Pongal. Although the festival has different names, all observe strong and clear links with the harvest season for farmers.

A large fair takes place at Gangasagar in West Bengal where devotees come from far and wide to bathe at the site of River Ganga’s merging in the Bay of Bengal. The first Shahi Snan at the Kumbh Mela takes place on this day. Millions of people perform a holy dip at the confluence of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati in Prayagraj.

Makar Sankranti is a time of celebration and thanks giving, and is marked by a variety of rituals and charity.

Mauni Amavasya day falls on the 15^th day of dark fortnight in the month of Magh. The Sanskrit word Maun means silence. People take the vows of silence and observe Maun Vrat during this day. It is believed that observing the Maun Vrat on the day of Mauni Amavasya helps purify the mind, body, and soul.

A ritual of offering of water, known as tarpan, to ancestors is performed on this day. People perform sacred rituals to seek blessings from the departed ancestors. On this day, the customary rituals include Pitri Tarpan, Pitri Dan and feeding of deserving persons. People donate to the needy and perform charity. It is a time of self-inspection and inner reflection. The second Shahi Snan at the Kumbh Mela takes place on this day.

Vasant Panchami is an important spring festival, which is celebrated on the fifth day of the bright fortnight in the month of Magh. It marks the start of preparations for welcoming spring season and Holi, the festival of colour, which occurs forty days later.

Vasant Panchami is dedicated to Saraswati, who is the goddess of knowledge, language, music and arts. She symbolises creative energy and power in all its forms. Educational institutions and temples organise special events dedicated to Saraswati. Poetic and musical gatherings are held in her reverence.

It is considered an auspicious day to start education. Many parents prefer their young children begin reading and writing on this propitious day. The third and last Shahi Snan takes place on this day during the Kumbh Mela.

Maghi Purnima falls on the full moon day in the bright fortnight in the month of Magh. The whole month of Magh is considered auspicious and Purnima being the last day becomes especially important for devout Hindus. This day marks the start of ripening of winter crops. Farmers offer prayers and express gratitude for a better harvest.

People bathe in holy waters, donate to charitable causes and offer prayers to their preferred deities. Many visit renowned sacred rivers such as Ganga, Yamuna and others. A dip at Sangam in Prayagraj is specifically desirable on this day. During the Kumbh Mela, a large number of people bathe at Triveni Sangam.

Maha Shivratri is a festival dedicated to Lord Shiv. It is celebrated on the thirteenth day of the dark fortnight in the month of Phalgun. According to one legend, on this night, Shiv performed the heavenly dance of creation, preservation and regeneration. Believers chant hymns, read Shiv scriptures and partake in the performance of the cosmic dance remembering Shiv’s omnipresence. According to another legend, Shiv drank the poison Halahal, which emerged during the Samudra Manthan on this day.

Being an auspicious day, bathing in sacred rivers during the Kumbh Mela is considered propitious. This is the last official Snan of the Kumbh Mela.

Significance – The Kumbh Mela plays significant roles in uniting the people of India by bringing them at one place from all over the country. It provides a communal spiritual space for Hindus to gather and participate in a major religious event. It is the time for devout Hindus to reflect on lives lived so far and yet to come, and become linked to mythological events of ancient times.

It also offers opportunities to discuss issues of common religious, social and cultural interest. For example, it had provided a forum for connecting the Indian population during the Indian Independence movement.  In 1906, the Sanatan Dharma Sabha met at the Prayagraj Kumbh Mela and resolved to start the Banaras Hindu University. In 1964, the Vishva Hindu Parishad was founded at the Haridwar Kumbh Mela. It continues to offer opportunities for politicians, social workers, religious leaders and the masses to gather in large numbers, reflect on commonalities and deliberate on issues of contemporary national interests.

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Satyamev Jayate, Truth alone Triumphs, a part of the Mantra in the Mundak Upanishad, is the state motto of modern India. The text is inscribed in Devnagari script at the base of the Lion Capital of Ashok forming it the Indian national emblem.

Truth is God was the firm belief of Mahatma Gandhi, which he comprehended after years of analysis of the relationship between Truth and God. He called his freedom movement Satyagrah or Insistence on Truth.

Ancient Indian texts assert, “The earth is supported by the power of Truth. It is the power of Truth that makes the sun shine and the wind blow. All things rest upon truth.” Similar statements are found throughout Hindu scriptures.

Truth has been highly esteemed in Hinduism throughout different eras of its evolution. Numerous stories and legends highlight the extent to which people subjected themselves to hardship and pain for upholding the truth in their life. Raja Harishchnadra’s story is one of the most remarkable legends demonstrating the resolve of a person to be truthful to his words. His name has become a proverbial term that points to someone who speaks truth even if that truth may be harmful to  him or to his close relatives or friends.

His legend appears in several texts including the Aitarey Brahaman, Mahabharat, Ramayan, Bhagavad Puran, Devi Bhagavad Puran and Markandey Puran. The details vary from one narrative to another. The Markandey Puran version of the legend contains a comprehensive description of events in the life of the truthful king.

Harishchandra was born in the Ikshvaku dynasty, the same dynasty in which lord Ram was born in a later age.  His father was Satyavrat, a legendry king who became famous as Trishanku.

After his father, Harishchandra became the king of Koshal kingdom with its capital in Ayodhya. He was married to Shaivya also known as Taramati. They had a young son named Rohitashva. Harishchandra was a mighty king, an emperor whose authority was accepted by all other kings. He was kind, generous and just. He treated his subject like his own child. He was truthful to his words beyond measure.

Once Indra, the king of deities, convened a meeting in his assembly hall to discuss affairs of the world. Vasishtha and Vishvamitra were present in the meeting as representatives of the earth. Vasishtha was the royal priest of Ikshvaku dynasty kings. He was a well-recognised Brahmarishi, a prestigious rank in spiritual hierarchy. Vishvamitra was originally a Kshatriya king but became a Brahmin through his penance and spiritual feats. There was an ongoing rivalry between the two great seers of their time.

During the meeting in heaven, Indra asked whether there was a king on the earth who was powerful, just and truthful to his words. Vasishtha responded and told the assembly that Harishchandra the king of Ayodhya was such a king. All other kings accepted his authority. His subjects loved him like their parents. He performed religious sacrifices and offered charities to Brahmins and worthy recipients. He was truthful to his words in every respect.

 Vishvamitra disliked Vasishtha’s admiration of Harishchandra and objected to his assessment. He informed the gathering that he would prove Vasishtha wrong. Vishvamitra returned to his hermitage on earth and started designing deceits to prove his statement whilst Vasishtha went to perform his penance.

Some time later, Harishchandra performed a Yagya, royal sacrifice that demonstrated his splendour and regal status. At that time Vishvamitra arrived at his court and asked for donation. Traditionally, it was considered a duty of kings to satisfy Brahmins with gifts. The king happily agreed to his request and ordered his treasurer to give the entreated amount. When the amount was to be disbursed, Vishvamitra left the court stating that let the treasury hold the amount in a trust and he would collect it later.

After this event, once Harishchandra went to the forest on a hunting expedition. There he heard distressing cries of women.  The king along with his escorts followed the direction of the wailing and ultimately arrived at a hermitage, where Vishvamitra was sitting in a meditative position. He had created the illusion of women’s cry. He became angry with the king for disturbing his meditation. The king apologised for the incidence and promised to repair the damage caused by his action at any cost. Vishvamitra took advantage of his statement and demanded his kingdom as reparation.  The king willingly agreed to his demand and returned to the palace.

Next day, Vishvamitra arrived at the king’s court and asked him to handover his kingdom as promised. The king complied. Vishvamitra then instructed him to leave his kingdom along with his wife and son. They were allowed to take only whatever they had on their body. Harishchandra’s subjects objected to this mistreatment and suggested him to decline the transfer of the kingdom but the king opted to honour his words and left the kingdom.

Further, Vishvamitra demanded the amount that was donated to him earlier and held with the king in his treasury. Now the treasury was also handed over to Vishvamitra as a part of the kingdom. Despite his precarious situation, the king agreed to pay him the agreed amount. Vishvamitra allowed him one month’s time to pay.

Harishchandra along with his wife and son roamed in the forest and survived on roots and fruits. They arrived at Varanasi where they bathed in the River Ganga and worshipped deities in temples.  The allotted time to pay the debt was nearing. Vishvamitra appeared before him and demanded his money. Harishchandra had not anything left to pay his debt. He decided to sell himself to get money but his wife objected. Shaivya insisted that she be sold advising him to recover her when he had enough money.

Harishchandra auctioned his wife and son in an open market place. A Brahmin in Varanasi bought them as a domestic servant to help his wife. The Brahmin paid him a good amount, which he gave to Vishvamitra. Vishvamitra was yet not satisfied and demanded more. Vishvamitra was willing to free the king from his debt, if Harishchandra declared that he was not liable to pay. Vishvamitra wished to lead the king to falsehood to prove his point that Harishchandra was not truthful as described by Vasishtha. However, Harishchandra was determined to pay the debt in full and did not succumb to falsehood.

When a few hours were left before the set time for payment of debt, Harishchandra decided to sell himself. He announced his readiness to be a slave for a certain amount that will meet Vishvamitra’s demand. A rich person of lowest social hierarchy known as Chandal expressed his willingness to buy him and pay the requested amount. He was the master of the cremation ground of the city and also an executioner. He was looking for a person to work for him. Harishchandra was unwilling to sell himself to such a person. Vishvamitra appeared before him at that moment and demanded the owing amount. Harishchandra begged Vishvamitra to accept him as his slave to save him from becoming a slave of Chandal. Vishvamitra accepted him as a slave and then ordered Harishchandra, his newly obtained slave, to serve the Chandal, who paid the huge amount of money to Vishvamitra, satisfying his conditions.

The new owner explained to Harishchandra his duties. He was assigned to guard the cremation ground from intruders and collect taxes from all those who came there to cremate corpses. His duty also included execution of criminals condemned to death by the court. The collected tax was divided amongst the king of the kingdom, the owner of the cremation ground and the person collecting the tax.  Harishchandra as a slave performed his duties diligently. In due course, his physical appearance changed and he looked like a Chandal.

He used to reminisce his past life as a king of Ayodhya with the queen and beautiful son Rohitashva. He thought about the appalling conditions in which his wife and son had been sold. He had no information about their whereabouts or wellbeing anymore.

Shaivya and child Rohitashva served their owner who was very cruel to them. The owner and his wife treated them poorly, and did not give enough food, clothes or shelter. They coerced them to work day and night. The child was regularly sent to collect firewood from the forest. Once as usual Rohitashva went to the forest to bring firewood but he did not return by the evening. Shaivya became alarmed about his safety. He asked the owner to allow her to go and find her son.

Her owner permitted her to go and look for her son only after she had completed all the domestic chores. It was late evening when she went and found her son lying dead on the floor of the forest. A snake had bitten him. She was devastated by this tragedy. No one was present to help her.

She realised her responsibility to perform the last rites of her son. She carried Rohitashva’s corpse to the cremation ground. She had no money to buy wood for cremating the corpse. She tried to collect some unburnt wood at the site to make a pyre. At that moment Harishchandra, the guard of the cremation ground, appeared before her. The woman told her story to the guard who sensed that she could be his wife. The guard sympathised with her but he did not deviate from his duty. He demanded the tax. He told her that he could forgo his own share of the tax but she had to pay the king’s and owner’s shares.

When she expressed inability to pay any tax, Harishchandra noticed her Mangal Sutra, which confirmed his suspicion that she was his wife. She also realised that the guard demanding money was her husband. Shaivya told him that the dead corpse is of their only son Rohitashva’s and begged him to allow her to cremate their son. Harishchandra could not cheat his master and suggested she return to her master and ask for money to cover the cost of cremation.

Shaivya left the corpse at the cremation ground and went to beg for money from her master. On the way a stranger met her and asked about her mission. When she explained, the stranger was moved by her pitiable situation and gave her a pouch of money and went away. In the meantime, police came looking for the thief who had stolen money from the royal treasury. They noticed Shaivya with the moneybag and arrested her.

They brought her to the royal court, which sentenced her to death assuming that she stole the money. She was brought to the execution ground for sentencing. Harishchandra who was guarding the corpse of his son was ordered by the master to perform the execution. When he saw the condemned woman, he recognised her and lamented. However, to obey the order, he raised his axe to sever her head.

At that moment Vishvamitra appeared and asked him to disobey his master’s command. Harishchandra, remaining truthful to his duty to obey his master, did not heed Vishvamitra’s advice and proceeded to fulfil his task. Vishvamitra then forcibly held his hand from executing the woman.

Lord Indra, Brahma and other celestials appeared in the sky and praised Harishchandra’s dedication to truth. Vishvamitra accepted his defeat against Harishchandra’s resolve.

Vishvamitra revealed to Harishchandra the story behind his ordeals perpetuated by him. He endowed all his merits gained through long penance to Harishchandra. The Brahmin who bought his wife and son was Agnidev or fire god. The Chandal was Dharmaraj, also known as Yamraj, the lord of death. 

Deities infused life in Rohitashva who was united with his parents. All three were restored to their previous positions. After ruling his kingdom for a long time Harishchandra attained a permanent position in the heaven.

The story of Raja Harishchandra has reminded generations of Indians the vital importance of the truth in their daily lives and actions, and continues to do so.

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Fiji is an island nation situated in the Pacific Ocean in the southern hemisphere. It comprises numerous islands. The majority of population lives on the two largest islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The population of Fiji includes about 37.5% people of Indian origin.

 Fiji became a British colony in 1874 and an independent country in 1970.

Originally, Indians were brought to Fiji under an agreement to work for a five-year term. The first ship with Indians under the agreement arrived in Fiji on 14 May 1879. The Fiji Indian community marks this date as Girmit Day. Girmit is the Indian vernacular pronunciation of agreement. All those who came under Girmit were known as Girmitiya. British called them indentured or bonded labour. They also addressed them coolie.

Between 1879 and 1916, a total of 60,553 Indians came to Fiji as indentured labour. The majority were transported form Kolkata port in the beginning, and later on, from Chennai.

Indians in Fiji lived a life of hardship and despair. Their working and living conditions were appalling. They experienced discrimination, deprivation and mistreatment.  

Totaram Sanadhya was one of the bonded labourers. He was brought to Fiji in 1893 and experienced the similar sufferings as others. He described them in a book after his return to India.

He explained how the workers were enticed in India, tricked into signing contracts, forced to travel to Fiji and their treatment in Fiji. A number of events he experienced and documented demonstrated the systemic cruelty and dehumanisation of indentured Indians.

Totaram was born in 1876 in village Hirangau, district Firozabad, in modern Uttar Pradesh. His father passed away in 1887. Deceitful lenders appropriated his mother’s jewellery and other family valuables.

Totaram was upset by the family’s financial situation and left home in 1893 in search of a job to support his mother. He arrived Prayagraj, looked for a work but could not find anything suitable.

In Prayagraj, once when he was in the market, worried with his situation, a person approached him, and indicated that he could arrange a job.

The man was a recruiting agent for indentured labourers. Such agents were engaged by the government to hire Indians to work in Fiji. They used to roam around public places such as markets, transport hubs and religious centres, and targeted those who were mostly in distressed conditions, to lure them with false hopes and promises. These agents were known as Arkati.

Totaram consented to the Arkati’s proposal and followed him to a house where many other men and women were already staying. After a few days in the house, he was brought in a group of 165 people to a magistrate, to register as an indentured labourer. The Arkati, who was fully aware of the questions that the magistrate asked, had advised the group to answer ‘yes’ to all questions. In about twenty minutes all were registered.

They were brought to Kolkata by a special train and taken to a depot, the place where indentured labourers were kept before departure to Fiji.

At the depot, an immigration officer disclosed details of travel to Fiji, work as a labourer for five years and payment. Totaram had believed that he would be working for six months and then would return home. He objected to the five-year term and attempted to withdraw from the agreement. He was forcibly locked in a room and compelled to agree to the specified terms.

Medical checks were conducted and emigration passes issued. Totaram was born in a Brahmin family but authorities falsely recorded his caste as Thakur in his pass.

Totaram, together with five hundred Indians boarded the ship at Kolkata. Fellow travellers on the ship established a close bond of camaraderie and became Jahaji Bhai. 

The ship arrived in Fiji on 28 May 1893 and disembarked at Nukulau Island. The island was a quarantine centre and also a depot for holding newly arrived Indians until their pickup by plantation owners.

Doctors performed medical checks of each labourer. Their clothes and other items were sanitised. They were divided into groups. Plantation owners paid a fee to the Immigration Department and collected their assigned labourers.

Totaram objected to his treatment as a servant by local authorities, but he was forced into a boat and taken to the Colonial Sugar Refining Company’s Nausori Plantation.

At the plantation, a twelve feet long and eight feet wide room accommodation was built in a complex known as coolie lines. A man with wife or three males or females in a group was allocated such a room. This was used for sleeping, cooking and all other domestic purposes.

The company provided them provision on a weekly basis and its cost was deducted from their pay. The amount given for a week was only enough for four days. Labourers had to manage their supplies to last for a week or go hungry and ask free Indians for food.

Totaram complained about the quantity of provision. He convinced the manager that the provision for him was inadequate. The manager increased his provision, but it was reduced to the previous level when others also demanded a similar increase.

Labours were under direct control of a kulambar or overseer and sardar. A sardar was generally an Indian person who assisted the kulambar in allocating the daily work and implemented his orders. Engaging an Indian as sardar also helped the plantation owners to divide the labourers.

Labourers were given a land of sugarcane 1,200 to 1,300 feet long and six feet wide to weed with a hoe or other work of similar difficulty. If workers did not complete the allotted daily task, they were fined.

To get his daily workload reduced, once he fooled the doctor into believing him to be unwell during a medical check up. People were forced to commit unlawful acts in desperation.

Totaram’s frustration with the situation once led him to attempt suicide in his room. At the moment he was about to hang, someone knocked at the door. He removed his noose and opened the door. A local Fijian was at the door looking for food. Totaram thought God had saved him and realised the folly of misadventure. He decided against committing suicide.

An overseer used to whip the workers during his round if he did not like them. He could increase the daily task, reduce the daily wage or harass the family. Everyone was afraid of overseers. 

Once Totaram was working in the field. The overseer came to him and hit him hard without a preceding reason or excuse. Totaram became angry and knocked him in return. He felt certain that the overseer would kill him if he stopped punching his attacker. In the end, the overseer begged him to stop. Totaram agreed to his request after he promised not to take any action against him. The overseer became friendly towards him afterwards.

After five years of bonded labour, Totaram became a free man. He was in debt at completion of his tenure. Only a few could save money during their indenture.

He borrowed money from free Indians and leased land to become a farmer. He learnt the Fijian language, which helped him communicate with the local inhabitants. He acquired skills in carpentry, metalwork and photography. With photography, he intended to take photos of atrocities against labourers, and publish.

He educated himself in religious matters and became a Pandit, Hindu priest. He started performing religious ceremonies at homes of free Indians. He devoted his time and money to help bonded labourers. Considering him a troublemaker, the plantation owners barred his entry to their lands.

He used to sit at the boundaries and sing devotional songs. Passing Indians used to stop to listen to his Bhajans and then talked about their hardships.

Totaram started Ramlila in Fiji. The story of Ram’s gave the Girmits hope for a better future.

Totaram married Gangadevi. They had no children. They adopted a Fijian girl. Her biological parents maintained regular contact with the girl.

Totaram came into contact with Mr Burton, a Christian missionary. Burton realised that to convert Indians to Christianity, he needed to convert Totaram. He approached him with this intent.

Totaram argued with him on religious codes. He highlighted the suffering of Indians, inflicted by Christians in position of power. He enumerated the crimes committed by Christian perpetrators. Despite such arguments, they became friends and respected each other’s opinions.

In March 1914, Totaram left Fiji for India. In India, he toured many regions, spreading the news of gruelling conditions that Indian men and women were subjected to endure in Fiji.

With the help of a journalist named Banarasidas Chaturvedi, he published a book in Hindi titled ‘My Twenty One Years in the Fiji Islands’. Soon it was translated into other Indian languages. He also wrote ‘The Story of The Haunted Line’ that described desperations of the bonded labourers.

Totaram described many events of outrage against Indians that were committed by authorities working under the indenture system. One example is that of Kunti.

Arkatis had deceived Kunti and her husband and sent them to Fiji as Girmitiya. Both were assigned to a banana plantation. The overseer assigned Kunti alone in a secluded area to cut grass. Then he approached and tried to rape her. Kunti fled from him and jumped into the nearby river. She was saved from drowning by an Indian boatman.

 Another atrocity related to Narayani. She gave birth to a baby who died after birth. According to the law, she was entitled to abstain from work for three months. However, only a couple of days after giving birth, the overseer ordered her to return to work. She refused to abide by his order. He beat her so hard that she became unconscious. She was taken to the hospital. The case reached the Supreme Court in Fiji. In spite of all evidence proving the overseer’s crime, he was found not guilty.

Overseers were ruthless. Very few Indians could afford to take their case to court for justice. If a case was presented in the court, the ruling was always in favour of white wrongdoers.

Totaram noted the outrage committed against Pathans. Arkatis sent a group of them to Fiji. Like others, they were not provided adequate food. When they protested, they were beaten and forcibly transported to different plantations.

He also mentioned the case of Laliya and Ismail, a husband and wife duo. They were cheated by Arkatis and sent to Fiji at different times. Laliya met Totaram and asked for help finding her husband. He located Ismail but the authorities repatriated him to India without permitting the pair to meet.

In another case, a labourer named Ramdas went to hospital for treatment of his arm’s pain. The hospital sardar assigned him tasks, which he could not perform due to his symptoms. On his refusal, the sardar and doctor beat him. Finally, the case reached the court but the decision was made in favour of the doctor.

In one incident, a group of Sikhs came to Fiji. They planned to go to Argentina from there. A solicitor took money from them promising to arrange their trip to Argentina. But after receiving the funds, he declined to fulfil the promise. The Sikhs went to the court. After a long court case, they recovered only a fraction of money that the solicitor had taken from them.

Totaram wrote to Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa about the appalling condition of Indians. On his request, Gandhi sent Manilal Doctor, a barrister, to fight cases in Fijian courts for Indians.

There were deeply entrenched and unsurmountable biases against Indians. With connivance of colonial administration, plantation owners inflicted inhumane treatment and the judiciary validated all criminal activities against Indian workers. The whole mechanism of the indenture system was against Indians.  Totaram requested Gandhi to work on abolishing the indenture system.

Many of the events described by Totaram helped change public opinion in India against the indenture system. It was finally abolished in 1916.

Totaram joined Sabarmati Ashram in 1922. He lived there with his wife Gangadevi. He died at the Ashram in 1947. Gandhi wrote a eulogy for him on his death describing Totaram as an ornament to the Sabarmati Ashram.

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Surdas was a poet and singer who composed and sang devotional poems dedicated to lord Krishna in Brajabhasha, a vernacular of Hindi. In his own compositions, he has been identified as Surdas, Surajdas, Sur and Surshyam.

Scant information is available in his compositions to frame a legible biography of Surdas. External sources are used to create a profile of his life and work, but they offer conflicting details, and consequently profiles derived from them are not unanimously accepted.

All scholars agree that Vallabhacharya, the main proponent Acharya of Pushtimarg Sect of Vaishnaivism, initiated Surdas to his tradition. Pushtimarg is also known as Rudra Vaishnav Sampraday. It stresses on devotion to lord Krishna for attaining spiritual merits. His philosophy has spread in many regions of India.

Modern rendering of Shree Bhaktamal, a book composed by Nabhadas in late sixteenth century, and its commentary entitled Rasbodhani by Priyadas, has compiled Surdas’ biographical details, which are in agreement with his profile in literatures of the Pushtimarg tradition.

According to Bhaktamal, Surdas was born in a village named Sihi near Delhi in Vikram Samvat 1535 (AD 1478). He was born blind. He was named Surdas, a term commonly used to refer to a blind person. As the baby grew, he acquired specific abilities to compose and sing songs.

His father used to take Surdas to his clients during his visits to perform religious discourses. During such events, Surdas sang devotional songs beautifully, and impressed his audiences. They rewarded him with gifts and recognitions.

Over time, he also gained and cultivated a talent of prescience for locating missing objects.

Despite his unusual and amazing traits, his family members became indifferent to him. They assumed him to be a potential burden on them for life. Surdas became aware of strained relationships in the family due to him. He decided to leave and devote his time in the service of God. He moved out from his house and started living under a Peepal tree, ficus religiosa, away from his village.

Living alone under the tree, he used to sing devotional songs and chant prayers. He also addressed queries from local villagers, who came to him to seek help in finding missing objects. His responses normally proved accurate.

Obliged by his services, people brought food and other essential items that supported his existence. Once a landlord came to him seeking his assistance in finding his cattle. Surdas foretold him the location of the missing animal, which proved to be precise. The landlord became pleased and built a hut for him. Surdas became popular as Pragyachkshu, the one who sees through knowledge.

News of his skills in composing and singing verses and also in foretelling spread widely. People flocked around him to listen to his songs and for help in locating their lost properties. He became admired in the region. A number of people became his devoted followers and assisted him in daily routines.

Surdas was about eighteen years old at this stage. He sensed that he was getting entangled in worldly affairs. He had left home to devote time to spirituality but became busy in gaining fame and followers by spending time on mundane activities. He realised that it would not be possible for him to change the course of his activities while living in the current place, as he had become too well known. He decided to move away from there.

He came to Mathura but he did not feel comfortable there. He moved to Renuka-kshetra, now known as Runkata on the Agra-Mathura road. At Runkata, he came into contact with saints and other religious persons, and gained spiritual insight. However, he felt overwhelmed, as the place lacked peaceful environment.

From Runkata, he relocated to Gau Ghat on the banks of River Yamuna. There he learnt formal skills in poetry and music.  He continued composing and singing verses. His reputation as a devotional singer spread widely and he became well respected among the religious communities.

Vallabhacharya was on pilgrimage to the Braj-ksetra. During his pilgrimage, he temporarily stayed near Gau Ghat. He had heard of Surdas who was living in the same area. He wished to see him. Surdas also learnt about him and desired to meet the Acharya.

Surdas went to Vallabhacharya to offer his respect to him. The Acharya welcomed him and expressed his wish to listen to his compositions.  Surdas obliged gratefully and sang a prayer poem, which portrayed him very humble and helpless person.

Vallabhacharya was impressed by his performance and praised him for his talent.  He asked him to use his genius in the service of Krishna by composing and singing his glories and pastime. Surdas expressed his lack of proper knowledge of Krishna and his activities. Vallabhacharya initiated Surdas into his sect. He familiarised him with his Subodhani commentary of Bhagavat Puran and narrated him stories from it. Learning about Krishna’s pastime delighted Surdas. He started composing and singing verses relating to Krishna’s activities.

Soon Vallabhacharya moved to Gokul. Surdas accompanied him. Surdas visited the Krishna temple daily for Darshan of the deity Navneetpriya, butter lover.  Navneetpriya is one of Krishna’s names common in the Pushtimarg tradition. It relates to Krishna’s preference for butter during his childhood. Vallabhacharya preferred worshipping the child form of Krishna. Surdas composed original verses relating to Krishna and sang them in the temple.

From Gokul, Surdas came to Govardhan Hills along with Vallabhacharya. There he worshiped the deity in the Shrinathji temple.  Shrinathji is also another name of Krishna. The environment in and around the temple impressed Surdas. He decided to stay in close proximity of the temple and devote his time in the service of Shrinathji. He set up his residence in a place called Parasoli near lake Chandra-Sarovar. He visited Shrinathji daily and sang his newly composed verses in the temple.

During a travel alone, Surdas fell into a deep pit and stayed there for days. He remained hopeful and chanted prayers to Krishna, who appeared before him in person and pulled him out of the pit by holding his hand. After getting him out of the ditch, Krishna tried to free his hand, but Surdas held it tightly, and informed him that now he would never leave him.

Surdas accepted the Nirgun form, the form without attribute, of God but he preferred to worship the Sagun form, the form with physical attributes.  Krishna in his childhood and adolescent forms was his adorable God.

After Vallabhacharya, his son Vitthal Gosain became leader of the Pushtimarg sect. His preferred deity was adolescent Krishna.  Vitthal established a team of poets known as Ashtachhap, eight marked poets who composed devotional songs for the sect. Surdas became the chief Ashtachhap. He was designated the main singer of devotional songs at the temple.

Surdas came in contact with other saints and poets of Pushtimarg sect at the temple. They contributed to compiling his compositions and disseminated them far and wide. His poems, being in local dialect, were easy to remember and sing. His compositions became popular widely in North India.

Once, Tansen, Akbar’s court poet, sang Surdas’ composition in his court. Akbar was highly impressed by the song and desired Surdas sing for him in person. A meeting was arranged and he met Surdas in VS 1623. Akbar listened to Surdas’ melodic performance glorifying Krishna and praised him for enhancing the spiritual tradition through his songs.

On one occasion Surdas went to Gokul to visit the Navneetpriya temple. Shree Giridhar, son of Vitthal Gosain was in charge of the temple. He wanted to test Surdas’ ability to foretell. He decorated the idol of the deity in the temple with ornaments without normal dress, and asked Surdas to describe the beauty of the deity. Surdas sensed the style of decoration and described it in verses that truly depicted its opulence in unusual adornment. Giridhar felt ashamed of his action and realised his folly.

Surdas continued singing songs in Shrinath temple until the end of his life. One day Vitthal did not find him in the temple. He went to Surdas’ residence to enquire about his health. He found him on his deathbed. Surdas left his mortal body in the lap of Vitthal at the age eighty-five years.

In the words of Vallabhacharya, Surdas was a sea of devotion. According to Vitthal, he was a ship of Pushtimarg. Surdas had detailed knowledge of the Pushtimarg philosophy. He is believed to be an incarnation of Krishna’s friend Uddhav. He came to Earth to spread Krishna’s glory in the age of Kali.

Following the preferences of Pushtimarg Acharyas Vallabhacharya and Vitthal, Surdas focussed on describing pastimes of Krishna’s childhood and adolescence. 

Surdas composed around 1.25 lakhs of poems during his creative life. Most of his poems are lost. His work is divided into three groups that include poems composed before initiation to Pushtimarg; those composed during the lifetime of Vallabhacharya; and those during the period of Vitthal.

Initial creations were mostly prayer songs. During his association with Acharyas, his work focussed on describing Krishna’s pastimes. He also wrote poems based on other texts including the Ramayan, Mahabharat and Purans.

Sursagar, Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lahari are three books that are authentic compilations of his work. A number of other books are also credited to him, but scholars disagree on that assertion.  Sursagar is his most popular book that contains around 5,400 poems. It includes detailed descriptions of Krishna’s life mostly based on the Bhagavat Puran.

Details relating to child Krishna stealing butter from Gopis’ houses, teasing them and his playful behaviour with mother Yashoda are vividly described in Sursagar.

Krishna’s cattle grazing, his destruction of various demons, lifting Govardhan Hills, subduing Kaliya serpent and other activities are portrayed to demonstrate his divine status.

Surdas introduced Radha, the female partner of Krishna, in his composition. Radha did not appear as a specific character in the Bhagavat Puran. However, poets such as Vidyapati, Jaidev and Chandidas had introduced her as Krishna’s lover in their compositions previously.

Surdas followed the tradition established by these poets and described Radha and Krishna as lovers. Radha attained the status of Lakshmi through her association with Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu. The poems describing affairs between them are full of Shringar Ras or romantic love.

After Krishna moved from Vrindavan to Mathura, he sent his friend Uddhav to console his Gopi friends and elders. The dialogues between Gopis and him related to understanding the divine nature of Krishna and his pastime in Vrindavan as a son of Nand and Yashoda.

Sursagar also contains sections relating to Dwarka and events from the Ramayan and other legends from Purans.

Descriptions of minute details of Krishna’s pastime and activities in his work led many scholars to believe that Surdas could not have been blind from birth.  An alternate profile has also been written. According to this profile, his original name was Bilvamangal. He was a married man but maintained strong attachment to a Ganika, female dancer named Chintamani. His family unsuccessfully tried to dissuade him from her.

Later, Chintamani rebuked him for his wild attachment to her and neglectful behaviour towards his own family. Disappointed at her treatment, Bilvamangal left her and went away to become a Sadhu, holy man. However, his love towards Chintamani did not fade.

 Once he saw a lady in a temple. He followed her to her home assuming her to be Chintamani. When he realised his idiocy, he blamed his own eyes for his distraction. He pricked his both eyes with needles and became a blind man, Surdas. Subsequent events follow almost a similar narrative as described earlier.

Surdas remains one of most popular devotional poets dedicated to Krishna. Several films have been made on the life of Surdas. Delhi Doordarshan had broadcast a TV serial on the life of Surdas. 

Surdas’ work is an important source for Raslila, a popular folklore dance displaying activities performed by Krishna, Radha and other Gopis. His compositions are also found in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.

Surdas’ poems remain incredibly popular even now and are chanted by religious devotees, professional as well as amateur singers and common public during private and public cultural and religious events.

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Maharani Ahilyabai was the ruler of Malwa kingdom in India from 1767 to 1795. She was a great builder and a patron of religious and welfare institutions. She built temples, dharmashalas, rest-houses, ghats or the flights of steps at riverbanks, wells, ponds and other infrastructure for the welfare of her subjects. She ruled her kingdom with compassion, love and fairness.

Ahilya was born in the village named Chaundi in the present day Ahmadnagar district of Maharastra on 31 May 1725. Her father’s name was Mankoji Shinde, who was a village chief.  Her mother was Sushila Shinde. They belonged to the community, which was mostly engaged in farming and sheep rearing trades.

In the early eighteenth century, Maratha forces had expanded their control over a large part of India. In the Maratha administrative structure, Peshwas or Prime Ministers held a very powerful position and in reality, they were the real rulers of the Maratha domain.

Peshwa Baji Rao I ruled from his headquarters at Pune on behalf of Chhatrapati Shahuji, the Maratha king, who was based in Satara. The Subedar or head of a province reported to him. Subedars were responsible for administration of provinces.

Baji Rao I had appointed Malhar Rao Holkar the chief general of the Malwa region, which now constitutes parts of modern Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Malhar Rao eventually became a Subedar. He was the first Maratha ruler of Malwa. Indore was the capital of the region. Indore is the distorted form of Indrapur, the ancient name of the place.

Malhar Rao had a number of wives but had only one son named Khande Rao from his first wife Gautamabai. He loved his son immensely and was conscious of his weaknesses. Khande Rao was not interested in the state’s affairs, and his temperament was not encouraging for an effective future ruler.

Malhar Rao was on a journey to Pune to see Baji Rao I in 1933.  On the way he stopped at village Chaundi. As per the prevailing practice, he stayed at the village chief Mankoji’s house. There, he saw Ahilya, the eight-year-old daughter of Mankoji. He noticed her strength, courage and compassion towards fellow human beings and animals alike.

He learnt about incidents involving her actions. In one instance, the temple priest of the village had barred girls from worshipping at the Shiv temple. She built her own Shivling for girls where they could worship without restrictions. In another incident, she freed a cow, which was separated from her calf and held in a temple’s enclosure. A third incident related to her friend who became a widow soon after her marriage. The practice of child marriage was common during that period. Widows were ostracised from the community. Ahilya objected to this practice and tried her best to help her widow friend.

Malhar Rao realised that the girl demonstrated traits uncommon in a village girl of her age. Appropriate trainings would help her abilities to flourish and would make her a fitting companion for his son. Her attributes would hopefully help him become a worthy ruler.

He approached her parents with a request to allow Ahilya marry his son Khande Rao. Ahilya’s parents agreed and soon the wedding was solemnised in the village. Malhar Rao renamed her Ahilyabai Holkar. After the wedding Ahilyabai came to Indore and started living in the palace.

Ahilyabai was unaccustomed to the palace etiquette. Everything was new to her. She missed her parents, pet animals and friends. Khande Rao was two years older than her. His attitude towards his wife was unfriendly in the beginning.

Malhar Rao had full faith in Ahilyabai’s potential and instructed her chief queen Gautamabai to teach the girl palace customs and other skills that queens required. Gautamabai and another sympathetic queen Harkubai helped Ahilyabai to learn palace practices and to read and write. Ahilyabai also learnt politics, handling of arms and art, culture and religion.

Ahilyabai became familiar with governance and politics as well as with domestic responsibilities. Malhar Rao permitted her to attend and witness court proceedings. She was trained to become helpful in state administration. Her counsel to her husband and even to her father-in-law proved to be beneficial at times.

She gave birth to a son Male Rao in 1745 and a daughter Muktabai in 1748.

In 1754, the Maratha forces laid siege upon the Kumbher Fort, which was under control of Maharaja Surajmal. Khande Rao was inspecting his troops in the open battlefield where he was struck by a cannon ball from the enemy’s army and killed instantaneously.

Ahilyabai decided to commit Sati, a Hindu tradition of voluntarily burning of a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband.   Malhar Rao prevented her from committing Sati. In those times, it was wrongly thought that a woman’s life had no value in society, if she did not have a man to take care of her. The practice of Sati is now banned in India.

In 1761, the Maratha army was defeated in the Third Battle of Panipat. Malhar Rao survived the battle but felt greatly humiliated.  He died in 1766. After his death, Malhar Rao’s grandson and Khande Rao’s only son Male Rao became the ruler of Malwa, under the regentship of Ahilyabai. Male Rao was mentally unwell and died of his illness in 1767. 

The deaths of her husband, father-in-law and son in succession devastated Ahilyabai. She was the only person from the Holkar family trained to take over control of administration of the province. She accepted her responsibility to protect and serve her subjects. Ahilyabai appointed her loyal defense aide, Tukoji Holkar, as the chief of army.

Some in Malwa objected to her rule in the province. Their leader conspired with Raghoba Dada of Pune and invited him to take over the reign of Malwa. Raghoba was the uncle of Madhav Rao Peshwa, the fourth Peshwa of Maratha Empire.  He aspired to become a ruler.

Raghoba planned to challenge Ahilyabai and take over rule of the province. Ahilyabai’s spies kept her well informed. As Raghoba marched on towards Malwa, Ahilyabai sent him a message, “Fighting you would not affect me as much as it would affect your prestige if you lose to a woman.”

Ahilyabai also wrote to Madhav Rao seeking permission to look after the administration herself. She sent letters to other Maratha nobles requesting their support and help of their armies. The army of Malwa supported her leadership.

Raghoba reached Ujjain. Ahilyabai set out to meet him. She headed a procession of her entire army, elephants and horses. As she set out on her epic journey, people came out in her support and veneration, to see their queen in all her strength and glory. This expression of love, respect, admiration and loyalty by the common people was acknowledged in Pune.

In December 1767, Madhav Rao Peshwa instructed Raghoba to return and granted permission to Ahilyabai to continue the administration of Malwa. She moved her capital from Indore to Maheshwar, by the banks of the river Narmada. Maheshwar is the modern name of the ancient town of Mahishmati.

The town had been associated with ancient legends relating to Ravan, Arjun Kartyavirya and Parasuram. Here, on the banks of Narmada, Kartyavirya captured Ravan when the later challenged him to a combat. Ravan was released only after Parasuram killed Kartyavirya. 

At the start of her reign, the province of Malwa was not at peace due to the activities of anarchists in its remote regions. Ahilyabai decided to suppress these illegal activities and declared a competition for subduing evil forces in her kingdom. A brave man of ordinary origin Yashwant Rao succeeded in accomplishing her mission. Ahilyabai gave her daughter Muktabai in marriage to Yashwant Rao.

Muktabai had a son from Yashwant Rao named Nathoba for whom Ahilyabai had deep love and whom she considered as her heir. However, Nathoba died of consumption in 1790 and about a year later Yashwant Rao passed away.

Muktabai decided to immolate herself with the dead body of Yashwant Rao. Ahilyabai tried to dissuade her daughter from taking this recourse but Muktabai remained firm in her resolve and committed Sati. This event caused Ahilyabai immense personal grief.

In her role as queen, Ahilyabai ruled Malwa in an enlightened manner. She reinstated those who had opposed her. Ahilyabai held court every day.  She met the public daily and was accessible to anyone who wished to speak to her.

She was religious from her childhood and used to pray at home and temples. Khandowa, a form of Shiv, was her ancestral deity. Shivling was the revered deity of the Holkar family. While dispensing justice, she held a Shivling in her hand, considering that lord Shiv would guide her to the correct judgement.

Ahilyabai was one of the wealthiest rulers in the Maratha Empire. She did not use the kingdom’s riches for her personal pleasures. Rather than residing in a palace, she lived in a humble two-story house.

Ahilyabai was able to grant rights, which even today women struggle for. She abolished laws that forbade widows from owning property and adopting
children.

Among Ahilyabai’s accomplishments was the development of Indore from a small village to a prosperous and beautiful city. She built, temples, forts and roads in Malwa, sponsored festivals and donated to welfare and religious institutions.

During her time, trade grew, and farmers were happy. Art, music and literature blossomed in the province. Maheshwar became a place of literary, musical, artistic and industrial enterprise. She entertained famous Marathi poets from Maharashtra, and patronised Sanskrit scholars.  Craftsmen, sculptors and artists received salaries and honours at her capital. It was indeed an ideal kingdom.

Weavers settled and developed their skills in Maheshwar because of Ahilyabai’s encouragement. She set up a textile mill there. So fine were the Maheshwari weaves that the prosperous officers in the Peshwa courts used to order them to Pune. In current times, Maheshwar continues to be known for its fine cotton and silk cloth, and Maheshwari Sarees.

Outside Malwa, Ahilyabai built dozens of temples, ghats, wells, tanks and rest-houses across an area stretching from the Himalayas to pilgrimage centres in South India.

Among the temples, which Ahilyabai built in all parts of India, two were particularly significant. Their reconstruction gave immense pleasure and satisfaction to millions of Hindus. About a century ago, Somnath and Kashi Vishwanath temples were razed to the ground on a Mughal Emperor’s orders. Both Somnath and Kashi Vishwanath temples housed two of the twelve Jyotirlings of Shiv. Ahilyabai rebuilt both temples near the original sites.

Ahilyabai built Vishnupad Temple at Gaya, a sacred site for offering Tarpan, oblations to ancestors.

 Temples and religious institutions in Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Kanchi, Avanti, Dwarka, Badrinath, Rameshwar and Jagannath Puri and other places received regular charity from Ahilyabai.

She was conscious of dangers posed by activities of European trading companies and advised rulers to be careful of their interference in Indian domestic affairs.

Ahilyabai died on 13 August 1795 at the age of 70. Ahilyabai’s rule is remembered as a golden age in Malwa’s history. After her death, her commander-in-chief and nephew Tukoji Rao Holkar succeeded her. He soon abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kashi Rao Holkar in 1797.

Ahilyabai is venerated as Devi, deity and is addressed by terms Rajmata, Maharani and Punyashlok. Historians have noted how she encouraged all within her kingdom’s boundaries to succeed in their endeavours. 

Annie Besant, a British theosophist and ardent proponent of Indian self rule, wrote about Ahilyabai, “Far and wide the roads were planted with shady trees, and wells were made, and rest-houses for travellers. The poor, the homeless, the orphaned were all helped according to their needs. The Bhils, who had long been the torment of all caravans, were routed from their mountain hideouts and persuaded to settle down as honest farmers. Hindu and Muslim alike revered the famous Queen and prayed for her long life.”

A commemorative stamp was issued in her honour in 1996 by the Indian government. As a tribute to the ruler, Indore’s domestic airport has been named Devi Ahilyabai Holkar Airport. The Indore University too was renamed Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya.

Numerous books have been written and films produced about her life. A TV serial entitled Punyashlok Ahilyabai Holkar has become very popular among viewers.

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

The term Hindutva is formed from the root word Hindu. Initially, the word Hindu denoted the inhabitants of India. Subsequently it became a synonym for the followers of Hinduism, the religion of the Hindus. Hinduism is the distorted translation of the religion of Hindus, which was called Sanatan Dharma or Eternal Way of Living.

Hindutva means the characteristics of Hindus or Hinduness.These characteristics differ according to the sense for which the word Hindu is used i.e. inhabitants of India or followers of Hinduism.

During the foreign occupations, local inhabitants of India were subjected to mistreatment, manipulation and discriminations. Their religion, language and culture were denigrated. Foreign missionaries and campaigners, mostly with the support of administrative institutions, and deceptions, converted people into imported religions.

Using the policy of “divide and rule”, foreign rulers promoted the division of society on the basis of caste, creed, region and sects. That policy served their objectives well but it was detrimental to the welfare of Indians.

Local Indian leaders, educated patriots and social reformers realised the rulers’ machinations and worked to oppose them. They turned to ancient Indian civilisations for inspiration. Ancient Hindus had developed great civilisations, which are described in countless books. The remains of these civilisations have also been uncovered through archaeological explorations.

It was considered relevant to delve into the characteristics of Hindus, who had developed those civilisations, to understand the extent of their accomplishments and interpret them for use in the context of a contemporary nation. Scholars and experts reviewed Indian history and wrote books and articles that suited their purpose. Treatises on Hindutva were also issued from both religious and civilian perspectives.

A prominent writer Chandranath Basu (1844-1910) from Bengal wrote his book in Bengali ‘Hindutva – Hindur Prakrita Itihas’ in 1892. The title is translated as ‘Hindutva – Natural History of Hindus’. It was centred on the Advait Vedant philosophical aspects of Hinduism.

It combined a variety of traditional beliefs and practices under a common group. He expounded the greatness of Hindu religion and its tradition in an attempt to discourage the people from conversion to alien religions.

Another major proponent of the concept of Hindutva was Vinayak Damodar Savarkar. He expounded his theory of Hindutva in the prevailing context of contemporary nations. It was designed to unite the people of India, using an ancient concept of the nation of Hindus. It is his notion of Hindutva that became a beacon of hope for a large section of nationalists in India during colonial rule.

Savarkar was a freedom fighter, politician and writer. He was born in a village near Nasik in Maharashtra on 28 May 1883. He began his political activities as a high school student and continued to do so at college in Pune.

Due to his spirited political activities, the colonial government implicated him in serious crimes and sentenced him to 50-years imprisonment. He was transported to the Andaman Nicobar Islands and imprisoned in the Cellular Jail in July 1911.

He was aware of the political environment of his time and had witnessed religious unrests in various parts of the country. He realised that Hindus were especially depressed. He was familiar with the Vedic tradition and history of Hindu kingdoms, and was dismayed by the status of his contemporary Hindus, who were divided into various castes and sects.

During his incarceration in the cellular jail, he framed the definition of a Hindu in the following Sanskrit couplet.

Aasindhu Sindhu Paryanta, Yasya Bharat Bhumika;

Pitribhuh Punyabhu-shchaiva, Sa Ve Hinduriti Smritah.

“Those for whom Bharat Bhumi, the area from the Sea to Sindhu, is Fatherland and Holy land are known as Hindus.”

In the cellular jail, he did not have access to paper and pencils, but had learnt the technique of inscribing on prison walls with a pointed pebble or thorn, without being detected by authorities. He scribbled his ideas on walls and used to remember them by rote.

In May 1921, Savarkar was transferred to a jail in Ratnagiri, Maharastra. In the prison, he came into contact with other political prisoners who had access to writing materials. Despite being confined and isolated as a revolutionary prisoner, he could manage to get real paper and pencils. 

He expanded his ideas on Hindutva and completed a treatise titled ‘Essentials of Hindutva’ in 1922, in the jail. The text was smuggled out undetected by jail officials and published in 1923.

The book became so popular that well-known Indian leaders of the time including Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and Lala Lajpat Rai hailed it as amongst the most original and scholarly contributions to the Hindu ideology.

In January 1924 Savarkar was released from jail but was confined to Ratnagiri district. He became a prolific writer and wrote a number of books. In 1937 he was unconditionally released from internment in Ratnagiri. He worked to consolidate the Hindu community.

Savarkar became the president of Hindu Mahasabha, a political party. After Indian independence, he continued addressing social and cultural elements of Hindu society until his death in February 1966.

Savarkar’s concept of Hindutva forms the basis of Hindu or Indian nationalism. He was an atheist and pragmatically practiced Hindu philosophy. He differentiated Hindutva from Hinduism. Hinduism as a religion is only a part of Hindutva.

He offered a new direction in understanding the development of the Indian nation in his book on Hindutva. He started his book with a discussion on the importance of a name. A name relates a person, place or thing to their past. The past is the source of inspiration for progress.

Then he defines what is a Hindu. He refers to ancient texts and relates the word Hindu to Sindhu. Sindhu or Indus is the name of a river of the western region of ancient India, now Pakistan. The river Sindhu originates around the Mount Kailash in Tibet and discharges into the Arabian Sea. Another major river named Brahmaputra also originates in the same region. It flows toward the east and finally enters into the Bay of Bengal. Hindu texts highlight Sapta-Sindhu, or seven rivers, which are considered sacred. The term Sindhu also means the Sea in Sanskrit.

Earlier, it was understood that Hindu was a Persian word and Persians referred to the inhabitants of the land beyond river Sindhu by name Hindu.  Savarkar disagreed with the notion of outsiders labelling Hindus. He maintained that the inhabitants of the areas called themselves Hindu relating the word to Sindhu, the rivers and seas that encircled their land.

The term Hindu is the Prakrit pronunciation of the Sanskrit word Sindhu. Common people in ancient India used the Prakrit language for communication. Only educated persons used the Sanskrit language. Even now in some Prakrit expressions, S is pronounced H. Common examples are Keshari to Kehari used for a lion, Saptah to Hapta for a week.  Old Prakrit language has evolved into modern regional languages of India.

This identity of Hindus was further spread by residents of neighbouring countries, local and foreign traders and visitors. The land became known as Hind, Hindustan, Bharat or India. Their religion Sanatan Dharma became popular as Hinduism, the religion of Hindus. Savarkar offered various examples of use of these words in written texts by numerous ancient and medieval writers, poets, and political and social leaders.

Savarkar formulated the concept of Hindutva in the prevailing national and international contexts that contained certain elements:

The first element of the Hindutva is geography.Since the Vedic period, India has distinct geography, physically bounded by seas, rivers and mountains. Its inhabitants regarded the land as their fatherland or the land of ancestors and Punyabhumi or the holy land.

The second element is the population with a common bond of blood. The Indian population has been inter-mixing from ancient times. Indian literature contains numerous stories that describe the union of males and females of different Varna or social statuses.

Anulom and Pratilom marriages were not uncommon. Anulom refers to a male marrying a female of lower social status and Pratilom denotes a female marrying a male of lower social status.

A large number of modern castes demonstrate the existence of common blood. It also applies to mixing and conversion of people from one to another religious beliefs. Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Hindus have been doing so since their beginnings.

The third element is the common culture or Sanskriti.It relates to the Sanskrit language, which has been the means of expression and preservation of all that was the best and worth preserving in the history of the inhabitants. It includes common laws and rites for inhabitants of the land. In the long term, it is identified as civilisation of the people.

Savarkar regarded all inhabitants of India, who followed religions that originated in India, as Hindu. He assumed that they had common blood and common culture and they accepted India as their fatherland and holy land. He expressed concerns about some followers of imported religions. Events of his time had made him believe their loyalty to India divided and not unconditional.

His doctrine of Hindutva deals with social and political matters. Originally, the Rastriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had adopted the Hindutva theory to empower the Hindu community in India. Subsequently, it had modified to make it relevant for all sections of Indian society.

A number of people in India and abroad consider Hindutva to have a sectarian agenda, relating it to the Hindu religion. Political parties criticise RSS and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) for their support of the Hindutva philosophy. BJP is a national political party with policies on many social and national issues aligned with that of RSS.

India has made notable progress in many spheres of life during the BJP rule in recent years. Achievements made by the BJP led government in India have made Hindutva an international topic of discussion.

Conferences such as ‘Dismantling Global Hindutva’ and ‘Hindutva for Global Good’ have been held recently in the USA with the support and collaboration of a number of overseas universities and educational institutions.

Foreign opponents of Hindutva try to emphasise divisions in the Indian society, especially on the basis of religion. Religious differences between Hindus and Muslims had been used as a source of conflict in the past. Groups with vested interests try to activate religious sentiments with intention to achieve their own objectives.

National opponents of Hindutva use it for their political gain in the country. Sometimes, they play into the hands of foreigners who use them as a tool to serve their interests.

Proponents of Hindutva relate it to economic, cultural and social development of India. Hindutva promotes national cohesion, uniformity in social thinking, patriotism and cultural development.

Statements of the RSS chief summarise the arguments of the proponents of Hindutva.  He recently said that Hindus and Muslims were not different and they are descendants of the same ancestors. According to him, Hindutva is a common denominator for all Indians and not related just to a single caste, sect, or identity. RSS considers that the word Hindu expresses Indian identity along with the continuity of its spirituality-based traditions and its entire wealth of value system of the country.

It asserts that Hindu is the word applicable to all people of India who call themselves Indian. Hindu is not the name of some sect or denomination. It is not a provincial concept, and it is neither a single caste’s lineage nor the privilege of the speakers of a specific language. It is that psychological common denominator whose vast courtyard cradled human civilisation that honours and encompasses innumerable distinct identities.

The three elements of Savarkar’s Hindutva remain valid for India as well as for other modern nations. Close scrutiny of the system of governance of developed nations confirmed their validity.

Author – Awadhesh Sharma

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 after a 21-year stay in South Africa. His contribution to reducing hardships of Indian residents through Satyagrah and other social works in South Africa had made him an internationally recognised organiser and theorist.

On his arrival at Mumbai, political leaders, eminent citizens and acquaintances organised a grand welcome party in Gandhi’s honour. He was overwhelmed by the dazzling splendour of his reception in palatial surroundings.

Gujarati community organised another welcome party. Speakers spoke in English but Gandhi spoke in Gujarati, noting it as a protest against the use of English in a Gujarati gathering.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale summoned Gandhi to see him in Pune. He was a senior leader of Indian National Congress and had founded ‘Servants of India Society’, which focussed on expansion of educating the Indian population and other related social issues.

He had visited South Africa in 1912 and familiarised himself with Gandhi’s works. He prompted Gandhi to return to India and devote his energy to the service of his motherland. Gandhi visited Gokhale in Pune and also met the members of the Servants of India Society. He was impressed by their work. Gokhale wished him to work on national issues.

In big cities the public knew Gandhi through his contacts but the great majority of the population in India was unaware of his achievements and activities in South Africa. Gandhi needed to understand India, its people, their conditions and its environs. Gandhi wished to set up an Ashram that could serve as his base, and would accommodate his colleagues who came from the Phoenix settlement in South Africa.

Gokhale instructed Gandhi to spend his first year familiarising India with his ears open and mouth shut. To free him from the financial burden, Gokhale offered to cover the expenses of his Ashram, through accounts of the Servants of India Society. Gandhi accepted the offer.

Members of the Phoenix settlement were temporarily staying at Shantiniketan. Gandhi went to Shantiniketan to see his colleagues. There he met the teachers and students of Shantiniketan, and its founder poet Ravindranath Tagore. Gandhi suggested some self-help tips to students and staff members, to manage their accommodation and kitchen. His goal was to make them less reliant on servants, and on creating a sense of pride in their own physical work. His ideas were accepted and implemented by the school management.

Gandhi wished to stay at Shantiniketan for some time but he received the news of Gokhale’s death in February 2015. He travelled to Pune and attended Gokhale’s Shraddha ceremony.

From Pune, Gandhi went to Rangoon, Burma, breaking his journey at Kolkata. Gandhi used to travel in third class. His experienced the hardship of third class travel that made him aware of difficulties the masses in India endured during their daily travels.

On his return from Burma, Gandhi attended the Kumbh Mela at Hardwar, and also visited Hrishikesh. At the Kumbh Mela, he met sages, Sanyasis and pilgrims, and had discussions with them on social and religious topics.

In May 1915, Gandhi established his Satyagrah Ashram in Kochrab bungalow at Ahmedabad. A code of conducts and rules was agreed upon with other members of the team. In the beginning, about twenty-five men and women lived at the Ashram.

A few months after the Ashram was set up, Gandhi received a letter from a reputable person with request to accommodate a Dalit family at the Ashram. Gandhi admitted the family of three to the Ashram after discussion with other residents. Neighbours as well supporters of the Ashram resented the admission of the Dalit family. Monetary help was stopped. The situation became so dire, that there was no fund to support the Ashram. At this stage, an unknown person delivered to Gandhi Rs13000, which was enough for a whole year.

The Satyagrah Ashram was later shifted to a new location on the banks of River Sabarmati in June 1917.

Gandhi travelled across India and witnessed the abject poverty of masses in villages, towns and cities. He noticed unhygienic environments in residential areas and at religious sites, the mistreatment of deprived populations, and other malpractices.

In February 1916, Gandhi attended the opening ceremony of Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi. Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya had founded the University. Rajas and Maharajas of princely states, renowned businessmen, social and political leaders, teachers, students and the Viceroy of India attended the event.

Gandhi delivered his first public address in India at this ceremony. He spoke in English and noted, “It is a matter of deep humiliation and shame for us, that I am compelled this evening to address my countrymen in a language that is foreign to me.”

He was appalled by the opulence displayed by monarchs and high officials through their attires and jewelleries. Addressing the richly adorned noblemen he said, “There is no salvation for India unless you strip yourselves of this jewellery and hold it in trust for your countrymen.” Many princes walked out.

He also spoke on unhygienic conditions in and around the cities and sacred sites and on other issues that were demeaning Indian society.

Audiences were not used to listening to such introspection.  After the event at Varanasi, Indians began to hear more about the opinion of a courageous person who lived like a poor man in an Ashram as a saint, and defended the poor.

Gandhi started his first Satyagrah in India in Champaran, Bihar in 1917. It started thanks to the persistent effort of Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo farmer from Champaran. Farmers in the region were forced by British indigo planters to grow indigo on 15% of their land. The planters appropriated the whole crop as rent. Farmers were dismayed by the system and their pleas to authorities had not produced any relief.

During the Congress session at Lucknow in December 1916, Shukla met Gandhi and sought his support for indigo farmers. He requested Gandhi to come to Champaran and see the extent of exploitation that the farmers were subjected to. Shukla followed Gandhi to Kanpur, his Ashram in Ahmedabad and Kolkata until he agreed to visit Champaran.

In early 1917, Gandhi was in Kolkata. Shukla met him there and insisted on his trip to Champaran. Gandhi agreed. They departed Kolkata and arrived at Patna by train. Shukla led Gandhi to the house of a lawyer in Patna, Rajendra Prasad, who later became the first president of Independent India. Rajendra Prasad was away. Gandhi contacted Mazharul Haq, an old acquaintance whom he had met in London. With his help, Gandhi arranged his onward journey and arrived at Muzaffarpur on 15^th April midnight.

JB Kripalani, a professor at the Arts College Muzaffarpur met him at the railway station. Gandhi had met Kripalani earlier at Shantiniketan.  He wanted to collect information about the situation of indigo farmers from more reliable sources.

The news of Gandhi’s arrival at Muzaffarpur spread quickly and farmers from Champaran and Muzaffarpur started gathering to see him. Lawyers who had been dealing with indigo cases in courts called on to him to brief.

After hearing the farmers’ side of story, Gandhi wished to hear the British planters’ views. He contacted the secretary of British landlords’ association who flatly refused to provide any information.

Gandhi called on the British commissioner of Tirhut Division in which Champaran district lay. The commissioner tried to bully him and instructed him to leave Tirhut. Gandhi did not leave and instead he proceeded to Motihari, the capital of Champaran district. Several lawyers accompanied him. At Motihari railway station, he was greeted by a vast multitude of people.

Next day, when Gandhi was en route to villages on an elephant to investigate the situation, a police superintendent intercepted him and issued a summons to appear in court the next day. Gandhi telegraphed Rajendra Prasad to come with influential friends and wired a full report to the Viceroy. 

The news of Gandhi’s court appearance spread like wildfire in the surrounding regions. The next morning, people flocked around the court. Police were unable to control the crowd without Gandhi’s cooperation. In the court, Gandhi read a statement supporting his actions of civil disobedience and pleaded guilty. The magistrate asked Gandhi to furnish bail for release. Gandhi refused, and the magistrate released him without bail.

Later, the case against Gandhi was withdrawn and civil disobedience triumphed. He was allowed to proceed with his inquiry, which he and his lawyers completed. On his request, an official commission of inquiry into the indigo farmers’ situation was appointed. In the official commission, Gandhi was the sole representative of the farmers.

The official commission found evidences of excess rents charged by the British planters. They were ordered to pay back the excess rent to farmers. The farmers felt empowered and became bold. Within a few years, British planters abandoned their estates, which were reverted to farmers. Indigo farming disappeared.

Gandhi stayed in Champaran for seven months uninterrupted during his first visit, and later visited a number of times. He started schools, primary health care centres and other programs to help the local communities. He tried to teach the local population self-reliance.

The success of his experiment in Champaran greatly enhanced Gandhi’s reputation in India. While he was still busy with many projects in Champaran, he received an urgent request from textile workers of Ahmedabad. They had a dispute with mill-owners for better pay and working conditions. Gandhi learnt the demands of workers and the mill-owners’ position on the issue, and proposed arbitration for resolution of the dispute.  The mill-owners refused arbitration.

Gandhi asked workers to go on strike, provided they took a pledge to remain non-violent. They agreed but soon many were on the verge of starvation. Gandhi sensed that workers might break the pledge. He declared that he would not touch food until a settlement had been reached. His fast had a moral effect on the workers as well as on mill-owners. At the end of the third day of the fasting, both parties agreed to arbitration to resolve the dispute.

After the textile industry’s dispute, Gandhi was approached to interfere in the agrarian dispute in Kheda district of Gujarat. Farmers were on the verge of starvation but the Government was demanding to pay tax as usual. In March 1918, Gandhi advised farmers to resort to Satyagrah. He persuaded all the farmers, rich and poor to take a pledge not to pay any tax until those who could not pay were granted remission. This campaign continued for four months, until the Government suspended tax collection for poor farmers.

During the Kheda campaign, Viceroy Chemsford had convened a war Conference to enlist support of Indian leaders for the First World War.  Gandhi was invited to the conference and he agreed to support the war effort. During his campaign for recruiting soldiers in July 1918, he said, “If we want to become free from reproach of cowardliness, we should learn the use of arms. We should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is the ability to bear arms and to use them.”

Gandhi’s readiness to recruit for the British war had been a matter of debate. His campaign did not find popular support and failed.

During the process of recruiting, Gandhi suffered from dysentery. He fasted and refused medicine and injection. His illness became so serious that he felt sure he would die. A medical practitioner suggested an ice treatment, which helped. He advised him to take eggs, which Gandhi refused.

Doctors advised him to take milk, to which he reminded them of his vow of not taking milk. He had stopped taking milk due to the cruel manner of milking cows and buffaloes. At this moment his wife Kasturba interjected, “You cannot have any objection to goat milk.” Gandhi wished to live and agreed to take goat milk. Gandhi later wrote that it was a breach of his pledge, and this act had always bothered him.

Gandhi’s illness could not keep him away from action for long, as the British government reneged from their promises to India after the First World War.